Twitter and Square CEO Jack Dorsey and Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates both recommend reading the same book about meditation for handling stress and uncertainty: "21 Lessons for the 21st Century" by historian and philosopher, Yuval Noah Harari.

The book contains essays about the "future of humankind," and how society is challenged and impacted by technology and information. Harari's suggestion is to use meditation to address the many worries or anxieties that we may have about the future, including topics like climate change, terrorism, artificial intelligence and privacy.

"The trick for putting an end to our anxieties, [Harari] suggests, is not to stop worrying," Gates wrote in a 2018 blog post. "It's to know which things to worry about, and how much to worry about them." For example, you should focus on the day's challenges and think about what problems truly require our attention.

"Of course, he isn't suggesting that the world's problems will vanish if enough of us start sitting in the lotus position and chantingom," Gates, who meditates two or three times a week for about 10 minutes each session, wrote in the blog. "But he does insist that life in the 21st century demands mindfulnessgetting to know ourselves better and seeing how we contribute to suffering in our own lives."

To people who've never meditated before, this strategy might sound a little far-fetched.

In a recent episode of "The Artificial Intelligence Podcast with Lex Fridman," which aired on April 26, Dorsey explained how this philosophy can be applied to some of the issues that people encounter with using technology in daily life.

For example, Harari posits that young kids who grow up using Google might be learning to "off-load self-awareness" to computer programs and algorithms that can do the thinking and decision-making for them, Dorsey said on the podcast.

"His concern is that we lose that self-awareness because the self-awareness is now outside of us and it's doing such a better job at helping us direct our decisions," Dorsey said about Harari.

So how does meditation fit in here?

"He sees meditation as a tool to build the self-awareness and to bring the focus back on, 'Why do I make these decisions? Why do I react in this way? Why did I have this thought? Where did that come from?'" Dorsey said.

Both Harari and Dorsey practice vipassana meditation, or "insight meditation," a technique that focuses on observing and understanding thought patterns.

"I do two hours every day of meditation," Harari told GQ in 2018. "I go to a lot of retreats, up to 60 days every year, and it works for me. I won't say that it will work the same for everybody. Different techniques work for different for people."

Dorsey also meditates for two hours daily, and has been on 10-day silent meditation retreats.

Check out: The best credit cards of 2020 could earn you over $1,000 in 5 years

Don't miss:

Visit link:

Bill Gates and Jack Dorsey both recommend this bookit can help with anxiety and decision-making - CNBC

The risk with trying to imagine what the future might look like is to simply think it is going to be a brighter, shinier version of today. At this precise moment in time, this has perhaps never been truer.

The COVID-19 lockdowns were a seismic shock to the economy, one which will take months, possibly years to recover from. Entertainment consumption patterns have been transformed, with some need states becoming void states in an instant, while new ones have filled their place.

Whether COVID-19 goes for good in the coming months or whether it is with us for years to come, some behaviour patterns have changed for good, creating new opportunities, many of which (e.g. virtual events) have yet to be properly monetised. So at a time when it seems that the whole world is creating music forecasts, it is now the time to think about what comes next rather than just predicting how big the long established revenue streams will get.

With streaming growth slowing and creators feeling short changed, it is time to think about what plan B is, for the sakes of both the industry and the creator community.

At MIDiA we are currently compiling our music industry forecasts with a lot of detailed work being put into estimating how COVID-19 and the coming recession will impact a revenue growth. Were modelling everything from ARPU, churn, net adds, and disposable income patterns through to store closures. Were confident that this new methodology will make our already reliable forecasts even better (for the record our 2019 subscription forecasts with within 4.5% of the actual figures).

Were also going to push ourselves out of our comfort zone and over the course of the year forecast some new revenue streams for which a comprehensive set of historical data does not exist. This means our chances of making incorrect calls is higher, but were doing it because we think it is crucial to start trying to frame what the future landscape will look like.

Here are the five emerging revenue sectors that we think could collectively be the music industrys next growth driver

Music is often a core part of these but it is not always licensed. The example of artists and rightsholders making music available to fitness trainer Joe Wicks illustrates the point. To date, streaming services have provided the soundtrack to such activities with contextual playlists (chill, study, workout). But it is of course far better for the context itself to deliver the music. We expect the next few years to see categories like online wellness and fitness to eat into the time that people were previously using streaming for the soundtrack. Instead of bring your own music, the trend will be the context will bring it. UMGs Lego partnership is a case in point.

Artist distribution platforms built a role as top of funnel tools, helping labels find the next big hit. But the music creation itself, enabled through online SAAS tools is in the fact the real top of funnel. Anyone who can establish relationships there does so before they release music. Right now, Spotify looks better placed to capitalise on this opportunity than labels. But labels should be paying close heed. Just in the way that distribution platforms came out of nowhere to become an established part of the label toolkit, so will artist tools. Simply put, creator tools will become part of what it is to be a music company.

TikTok clearly has momentum that far exceeds that of previous similar apps. It can either choose to just carry on being good at one thing or instead become the next big social platform, growing as its audience ages. Just like Facebook did. TikTok now is where YouTube was back in the late 2000s. If rights holders can establish an entirely new monetisation framework then TikTok could become the biggest single driver of future revenue.

As with any future gazing, the odds are that not all of these opportunities will transpire, but what is clear is that the current dominant format is not enough on its own. Rights holders and creators alike need new future revenue streams to offset the impact of slowing revenue growth and royalty crises.

The last time the music industry had one dominant format and no successor was the CD and we all know what happened then. The music industry is not about to enter a decade of freefall this time, but it is at risk of stagnating, especially as its leading music service is now so eager to diversify away from music that it offers a podcaster more money in one deal than most artists will ever earn in their lifetime from it. Lets make this next chapter of the industrys growth about innovation, growth, new opportunities and fresh thinking.

Read the rest here:

Tagged with meditation - Music Industry Blog

The Mindfulness Meditation Apps market research report now available at MarketStudyReport.com delivers a thorough analysis of the industry trends influencing the global business scenario. In addition, the report offers definitive information pertaining to the commercialization aspects, revenue estimation, and market size of the industry. The report overtly defines the status of key players in the competitive landscape while including their portfolio and geographical expansion endeavors.

Enumerating an intrinsic evaluation of the Mindfulness Meditation Apps market, this research study basically covers this industry space with regards to numerous aspects along the likes of the geographical industrial layout characteristics, development trends over the projected timeline, as well as the industrial and macroeconomic policies. The current scenario of the Mindfulness Meditation Apps market and how it may impact potential shareholders, in tandem with a gist of the enterprise competition trends as well as the benefits and obstacles of the enterprise products have also been elucidated in the research report. In addition, the study is inclusive of an extensive scientific analysis on subjects spanning raw materials to the industry downstream buyers.

Request a sample Report of Mindfulness Meditation Apps Market at:https://www.marketstudyreport.com/request-a-sample/2654966?utm_source=jewishlifenews.com&utm_medium=Ram

The Mindfulness Meditation Apps market trends with respect to the industry segmentation:

A run-through of the competitive landscape of the Mindfulness Meditation Apps market:

Ask for Discount on Mindfulness Meditation Apps Market Report at:https://www.marketstudyreport.com/check-for-discount/2654966?utm_source=jewishlifenews.com&utm_medium=Ram

The Mindfulness Meditation Apps market outlook from a geographical perspective:

Europe, Asia-Pacific & Middle East and Africa, with regards to the geographical terrain.

The Mindfulness Meditation Apps market study is also inclusive of a host of other information, such as industry chain analysis, manufacturing cost structure analysis further encompassing the products manufacturing cost structure and the production process analysis. An evaluation of the market channels and downstream buyers, as well an analysis of the new project feasibility have been delivered. Substantial information about the new industry contenders with respect to a SWOT analysis, the drivers and constraints of the Mindfulness Meditation Apps market, and the opportunities prevailing across this business has also been elucidated.

For More Details On this Report: https://www.marketstudyreport.com/reports/global-mindfulness-meditation-apps-market-research-report-2015-2027-of-major-types-applications-and-competitive-vendors-in-top-regions-and-countries

Some of the Major Highlights of TOC covers:

Mindfulness Meditation Apps Regional Market Analysis

Mindfulness Meditation Apps Segment Market Analysis (by Type)

Mindfulness Meditation Apps Segment Market Analysis (by Application)

Mindfulness Meditation Apps Major Manufacturers Analysis

Related Reports:

1. Global Smart Home Security Light Bulbs Market Research Report 2015-2027 of Major Types, Applications and Competitive Vendors in Top Regions and Countries This report categorizes the Smart Home Security Light Bulbs market data by manufacturers, region, type and application, also analyzes the market status, market share, growth rate, future trends, market drivers, opportunities and challenges, risks and entry barriers, sales channels, distributors Analysis. Read More: https://www.marketstudyreport.com/reports/global-smart-home-security-light-bulbs-market-research-report-2015-2027-of-major-types-applications-and-competitive-vendors-in-top-regions-and-countries

2. Global International Calling Market Research Report 2015-2027 of Major Types, Applications and Competitive Vendors in Top Regions and Countries International Calling Market report starts from illustration of Industry Chain structure, and portrays industry condition, at that point investigations advertise size and figure of International Calling by item, district and application, likewise, this report presents showcase rivalry circumstance among the merchants profile, plus, advertise value examination and esteem chain highlights are canvassed in this report. Read More: https://www.marketstudyreport.com/reports/global-international-calling-market-research-report-2015-2027-of-major-types-applications-and-competitive-vendors-in-top-regions-and-countries

Read More Reports On: https://www.marketwatch.com/press-release/nanosatellite-and-microsatellite-market-analytical-overview-growth-factors-demand-trends-and-forecast-to-2026-2020-05-22?tesla=y

Contact Us: Corporate Sales, Market Study Report LLC Phone: 1-302-273-0910 Toll Free: 1-866-764-2150 Email: [emailprotected]

Read more:

Mindfulness Meditation Apps Market Trends Analysis, Top Manufacturers, Shares, Growth Opportunities, Statistics & Forecast to 2027 - Jewish Life...

Insight Meditation Community of Lewes will welcome meditation teacher Carl Skooglund for a morning meditation retreat from 9 a.m. to 12 p.m., Saturday, May 16, via Zoom.

The event will include periods of guided meditation and sessions for questions and answers. The group also will experiment with portions of the The Brahma Viharas (Divine Abodes). All are welcome to attend this morning of meditation and discussion.

Skoogland has been practicing since 1993. He has also trained with Spirit Rocks Community Dharma Leader program and is a regular teacher at the Insight Meditation Community of Washington, D.C.

The suggested donation for the retreat is $20. For those with limited income, 50 percent or any amount of the suggested donation offered is welcome. If budget does not allow for a donation, simply log in; no explanation is needed.

For the Zoom meeting link and PayPal donation information, contact Carolyn Quinn at 302-644-7650 or cquinn@quinnassoc.com.

For more information, including scheduled events and weekly meditation meetings, go to http://www.IMC-Lewes.org.

See the original post:

Meditation with Carl Skooglund set May 16 in Lewes - CapeGazette.com

Nick Zano, Jes Macallan, Caity Lotz, Dominic Purcell, Maisie Richardson-Sellers, Matt Ryan, Tala AshePhoto: Jeff Weddell (The CW) TV ReviewsAll of our TV reviews in one convenient place.

Last week we ran down some of the greatest hits of the Legends repertoire. Two major items were missing from that list, but perhaps it was fate (or the Fates) because both popped up this week. First, theres the obligatory physical-manifestation-of-Gideon episode, a rare but reliably entertaining occurrence. If Gideon shows up, the episode in question is bound to be something of an event. And then theres the Legends episode that seems like a rompand is, in fact, at least sort of a rompbut which is also an exploration of a rich, complex theme. Some, if not all, of the shows best hours do exactly this, and I Am Legends, a promising, thoughtful, bonkers part one of an episode in the vein of Hello No, Dolly! and Guest Starring John Noble, does it very, very well. The theme, naturally, is death.

And actually, theres a third greatest-hit to add to the list: Sara Lance dying. Nobody does it betteror more frequently.

Sure, these deathsor most of them, at leastwont be permanent. (Gary will make it through, if only because no one else would remember to feed Gary Jr. II his fabricator veggies.) But I Am Legends, credited to Ray Utarnachitt, Leah Poulliot, and Emily Cheever (Cheever and Poulliot each making their TV writing debut) does an impeccable job of making those losses feel real and shocking. Some of that is down to sheer cleverness: The episode hinges on that chalice-granted immortality, which means they cant be killedsuper-zombies, if you will. It allows them to take risks they might not otherwise survive; thats heightened by a few other near-death experiences without the immortal touch. But its not all broad strokes, and the writers thread the needle gently. When Avas not popping up after being shot in the head and Mick isnt throwing himself out of the back of a moving car without even attempting to tuck and roll, the characters spend their time talking about memory, remorse, loss, and loveyou know, death stuffand thus the hijinks and more delicate thematic elements all emerge from the same place.

Theres also a very simple trick that I Am Legends pulls, and its essential to the success of this strong hour. Its that shot to the head that Ava takes, a shocking jolt, brutal and violent and comically impermanent. The Legends, Sara tells Ava, are all about improvisation; a solution inevitability arises even when there seems to be no way out. (Get in losers, were going Looming.) But Sara spends the episode in a state of ominous calm, and when Ava finally asks her about it, the tone shifts immediately. Up to that point, with the possible exception of Zaris slightly delayed return to the land of the living, its all Ava popping back up and ejecting the bullet from her body. But once that scene happens, once the Time Team starts to get sentimental as they wait for their one great hope to charge up, theres a definite shift. Its there before Zaris timer ever runs all the way out. They all know it. Eventually, even for time-travelers, death comes calling.

G/O Media may get a commission

Legends Of Tomorrow has nearly always** done a better job of exploring big ideas thematically than all of its Arrowverse brethren (and many other TV shows), specifically because it often approaches the heaviest stuff from a weird, funny angle. Its not that it takes mortality, love, and regret any less seriously than other such storiesAvas clone backstory, for example, has been both solid comedic fodder and an opportunity to explore issues of identity, memory, betrayal, and self-loathing. Yet it never stops being fun. Sara Lance was a death witch when the death totem possessed her. John Constantine threw himself a funeral. Rays remorse over fatally wounding Nora led to a dueling Damien Darhk heist. Zari died over and over again, but she still got the fun montage. I Am Legends, a very funny, very silly episode that sees a bunny-hopping Amy Louise Pemberton play Gideon as imagined by Gary as Gary Jr. II, carries on that fine Legends tradition. Its all fun and games untilwell, it never stops being fun and games. Its just that it was always bigger than that, too.

The episode does, however, raise some sticky time-travel issues. How does Saras power interact with time-travel? If theyre capable of changing the futureand weve seen endless evidence that they arethen what prevents them from changing Saras fate (and thus the fate of them all)? And since weve seen Sara prevent a future shes seen from happening (Zari, hide that fork), what makes this circumstance different? And while I doubt very much well ever see an answer to this, how does Saras SaraVision correspond to and interact with Gideons abilities when it comes to future events? If Sara gets a flash and the Legends find the encore/correct the anachronism/solve the mythery, would she touch the same person or object and find its changed? And for that matterapologies to those of you who only watch this show and not the rest of the Arrowversehow does SaraVision relate to Ciscos abilities as Vibe?

Still, Im content to mostly not think about it too much. While Sara takes a backseat here, by her own design, I Am Legends is a fitting approach to a story about the impending death of this particular character, who has died and died and died again, with a few comas thrown in for good measure. If anyone in this story has a practical yet emotional response to death, its Sara Lance. The apocalypse doesnt faze her, and neither does her own end. Shes content with her life, and she trusts her friends, and her co-captain, to do whats best and necessary, whether she comes back or not. (Which, of course, she will.)

If the A-story is that of the Legends moving unknowingly but inexorably toward death-by-zombie (just be glad Martin Stein was spared this particular adventure), then the B- and C-stories were Zari and Constantines side-quest and Garys adventures aboard the Waverider. The Zari/Constantine story is just an excuse to get them to bicker and make out; while they havent totally put in the work to sell that particular story yet, the actors have such solid chemistry that Im fine with it. And this is a particularly solid use of Adam Tsekhmans Gary, whose suitably bonkers sub-plot gives him things to actually do, rather than relegating him to punchlines and screw-ups. Both also concern themselves with mortality, as Gary survives electrocution in order to try to bring Astra back to the side of the good guys and Zari and Constantine talk about and then actually confront literal death. That, and Amy Louise Pemberton bunny-hops across the floor. Thats some good shit right there.

So yes, itll all almost certainly be undone. But the feeling, as Sara Lances journey over the last several years indicates, will linger. Death comes calling for all of us, and not always in a permanent way; it touches us through the deaths of others, accidents and illnesses that could have been much worse, the car that swerves just in time and the handrail that allows you to catch your fall. Assuming Charlie can best her sisters, the Legends will find that handrail. But the shortened breath and quickened pulse, the burst of fear or gratitude or boththatll stick around. At least, until they all get turned into puppets again.

* - I assume, despite steeling up, that Nate died as wellperhaps his strength just gives out? And while Constantine doesnt have a soul, he presumably also bit the dust.

** - We wont mention season one.

Excerpt from:

The Legends battle zombies and public transit in a rip-roaring meditation on mortality - The A.V. Club

Bigg Boss 10 winner Manveer Gurjar has been spending the lockdown alone in Mumbai without family. The reality TV star has managed to find positivity in these times too, and says that he likes how he has managed to find more time for himself. "This is the perfect time to turn our focus onto something which most of us are guilty of neglecting. Perhaps one of the perks of social distancing is that it has given us some much-needed space. As interaction gets lesser with the outside world and other people, we do not have to worry about pleasing others and putting their needs over that of our own. Now is the time to put yourself first and do things that will make you feel happy and relaxed. In such difficult times we all deserve a little self-love" he says. With extension on lockdown, Manveer has been emphasising on the need for meditation to stay calm. "We cant control all things in our lives, but we can learn to adjust our way of thinking to make the best out of the situation. Learning to control our emotions and become more resilient is key when facing any challenging life situation. I'm practicing meditation, The goal of meditation is not to stop the mind, but instead to shift the attention. This helps to balance emotions in difficult times" says the actor who was also a part of Khatron Ke Khiladi. He feels utilising this time to revive old skills should be followed by all. "As all of us have some or the other skill that we had stopped putting to use due to different reasons. This might be an opportunity to revisit that old skill and rediscover why you fell in love with that particular thing in the first place. Under current circumstances, mental peace and happiness are a luxury and these skills could just buy us those." He concludes saying, "I'm also worried about the people suffering because of this lockdown. In a way financially we all are suffering. I wish the happy days return back soon."

See the rest here:

Manveer has started meditating more during lockdown - Times of India

Wednesday May 20, 2020

In these times of uncertainty and illness, it is worthwhile to consider how art addresses the familiar fears of mortality and death, writes James Bennett, the Art Gallery of South Australias curator of Asian art.

Buddhist philosophy, expressed visually through its art, is particularly concerned with the nature of individual wellbeing and the effect that mental anxiety has on us.

The self-cherishing desire, sometimes bordering on desperation or addictive narcissism, to sustain a long and healthy life is shown its visual antithesis in the Art Gallery of South Australias White Tara, which was created in the 18th century in Tibet.

Followers of the Himalayan tradition of Buddhism believe that White Tara is a spiritual role model, known as a bodhisattva, a being who holds to the essence of enlightenment. Depicted as a beautiful young woman, she is the embodiment of compassions selfless power to remove life-threatening circumstances and bestow the positive blessings that may accompany a long and healthy lifespan.

Tibet, White Tara, c.1750, wood, lacquer, pigment, gold leaf, semi-precious stones, 88.9cm; Elizabeth and Tom Hunter Fund 1994.

Each element of the White Tara image conveys deep meaning. White Tara sits on a lotus throne symbolising the capacity for our minds to blossom like an unblemished lotus flower rising above the quagmire of existence. Her white skin, much darkened with age on the Art Gallerys sculpture, is the colour of serenity.

White Taras body ornaments represent the bodhisattvas willingness to assume the appearances of material existence in order to render assistance to others. Her right hand makes the gesture of granting all wishes.

Significantly, the statue sits in the lotus posture that is familiar to students of meditation and yoga. Over the past 50 years there has been widespread interest in Buddhist philosophy and mind-training techniques. The Buddhist understanding of the mind has been explored in modern psychology, while visualisation methods have been adopted by psychotherapy.

There are considered to be two fundamental forms of meditation practice. Concentration, or single-pointed, meditation and mindfulness meditation that is known as vipassana in the ancient Indian Pali language. A classic Buddhist definition of vipassana is the awareness of the arising and passing away of all mental and physical phenomena.

Mindfulness, also called insight, meditation is often regarded as the practice most suited to the contemporary world where our lives are ceaselessly consumed by transitory daily activities and mental distractions. Nevertheless, many meditation students experience great difficulties in maintaining a regular daily meditation routine. Rising from the cushion or chair at the end of each session, the mind again instantly chases every thought or physical sensation as if it has an external reality. Once more our feelings become overwhelmed by insatiable desires for personal satisfaction, material profit and social approval. Or we are seized by agitation, remembering illness and the inevitability of death waiting us.

If we look closer at White Tara, sitting cross-legged in the meditation position, surprisingly we discover she has several extra sets of eyes on the palms of the hands and the soles of her feet as well as a third eye on her forehead.

White Taras seven eyes represent her enlightened ability to see all existence and perceive the most suitable means for bringing happiness to others. They are a reminder for us to consider the best motivation for commencing the study of mindfulness meditation. If we begin meditation practice with a self-interested motive then we will fail because the nature of the narrow mind is to be always restless and quickly bored. As an alternative motive, we can cultivate mind-training with the aim of achieving White Taras empathetic understanding towards those around us, whether friends, strangers or enemies.

This universal compassion, a term described by the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, thus becomes the inspiration for a well-grounded meditation practice that endures due to its altruistic motivation. The great 8th-century Indian saint, Shantideva, expresses this goal in his famous bodhisattva vow:

For as long as space remains, for as long as sentient beings remain, until then may I too remain to dispel the sufferings of the world.

Loading next article

Follow this link:

White Tara and the art of meditation - InDaily

Neighbors please be mindful of social distancing guidelines while you do your part to slow the spread of the new coronavirus. See the latest guidance from the CDC here.

This post was contributed by a community member. The views expressed here are the author's own.

We will meet up online to help heal ourselves and others. We will be working on practices of self healing, group healing, and meditation. Then a question and answer period following this workshop. We will start with an active meditation. Then move onto Firstwave: one of the 3 waves of energy. This is for helping release the past. Help separating it out so we can look at it more objectively. The Second wave: It is for balancing. Balancing the relationship between organs, balancing Chakras, the internal and external experiences and more.The Third wave: It is for easing the unknown. To discover our power to move forward and have peace with not knowing.

Link:

May 22 | 3 Waves of Healing in Active Meditation | San Rafael, CA Patch - Patch.com

How meditation and mindfulness just might be the key to unlocking peace during this pandemic

We're all trying to manage our anxiety about the ever-evolving situation surrounding coronavirus.

Karla Blindt has been meditating to manage stress and crisis since she was 16 years old.

The personal chef decided to bring her meditation practice into full bloom at the age of 50, studying 400 hours to become a certified meditator.

Blindt said, It just became a way of life for me.

In these high stress and hazy times, Blindt recommends meditation.

She said, Meditation is stilling yourself, stilling your mind, stilling your body. And connecting with you.

Research has proven practicing meditation alleviates stress and depression.

As we try to navigate the anxieties about COVID-19, Blindt guides free 20-minute zoom meditations to help people cope.

Just 20-minutes of meditation where you stop and your brain relaxes and for some reason, it just takes the stresses away for that time and youre able to handle. Its their 20-minutes of peace for the day.

If you dont have 20-minutes, Blindt advises practicing mindfulness in stressful moments throughout your day.

Take three long deep breaths to recenter yourself and restore your peace of mind.

More:

Local meditator guiding Zoom meditation sessions - KYMA

Philosophy antithetical to concepts of meaningfulness

Nihilism (; ) is the point of view that suspends belief in any or all general aspects of human life which are culturally accepted. Most commonly, nihilism is presented in the form of existential nihilism, which argues that life is without objective meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value.[1]Moral nihilists assert that morality does not exist at all. Nihilism may also take epistemological, ontological, or metaphysical forms, meaning respectively that, in some aspect, knowledge is not possible, or reality does not actually exist.

The term is sometimes used in association with anomie to explain the general mood of despair at a perceived pointlessness of existence that one may develop upon realising there are no necessary norms, rules, or laws.[2]

Nihilism has also been described as conspicuous in or constitutive of certain historical periods. For example, Jean Baudrillard and others have called postmodernity a nihilistic epoch[3] and some religious theologians and figures of religious authority have asserted that postmodernity[4] and many aspects of modernity[5] represent a rejection of theism, and that such rejection of theistic doctrine entails nihilism.

Nihilism has many definitions, and thus can describe multiple arguably independent philosophical positions.

Epistemological nihilism is a form of skepticism in which all knowledge is accepted as being possibly untrue or as being impossible to confirm as true.

Existential nihilism is the belief that life has no intrinsic meaning or value. With respect to the universe, existential nihilism posits that a single human or even the entire human species is insignificant, without purpose and unlikely to change in the totality of existence. The meaninglessness or meaning of life is largely explored in the philosophical school of existentialism.

Medical nihilism is the view that we should have little confidence in the effectiveness of medical interventions.[6] Jacob Stegenga proposed the term in the book Medical Nihilism. It is a work in philosophy of science that deals with contextualized demarcation of medical research. Stegenga applies Bayes' Theorem to medical research then argues for the premise that "even when presented with evidence for a hypothesis regarding the effectiveness of a medical intervention, we ought to have low confidence in that hypothesis." [7][8]

Mereological nihilism (also called compositional nihilism) is the position that objects with proper parts do not exist (not only objects in space, but also objects existing in time do not have any temporal parts), and only basic building blocks without parts exist, and thus the world we see and experience full of objects with parts is a product of human misperception (i.e., if we could see clearly, we would not perceive compositive objects).

This interpretation of existence must be based on resolution. The resolution with which humans see and perceive the "improper parts" of the world is not an objective fact of reality, but is rather an implicit trait that can only be qualitatively explored and expressed. Therefore, there is no arguable way to surmise or measure the validity of mereological nihilism. Example: An ant can get lost on a large cylindrical object because the circumference of the object is so large with respect to the ant that the ant effectively feels as though the object has no curvature. Thus, the resolution with which the ant views the world it exists "within" is a very important determining factor in how the ant experiences this "within the world" feeling.

Metaphysical nihilism is the philosophical theory that posits that concrete objects and physical constructs might not exist in the possible world, or that even if there exist possible worlds that contain some concrete objects, there is at least one that contains only abstract objects.

Extreme metaphysical nihilism is commonly defined as the belief that nothing exists as a correspondent component of the self-efficient world.[9] The American Heritage Medical Dictionary defines one form of nihilism as "an extreme form of skepticism that denies all existence."[10] A similar skepticism concerning the concrete world can be found in solipsism. However, despite the fact that both deny the certainty of objects' true existence, the nihilist would deny the existence of self whereas the solipsist would affirm it.[11] Both these positions are considered forms of anti-realism.

Moral nihilism, also known as ethical nihilism, is the meta-ethical view that there is no morality whatsoever; therefore, no action is preferable to any other. For example, a moral nihilist would say that killing someone, for whatever reason, is neither right nor wrong. Moral nihilism is distinct from moral relativism, which acknowledges individual or cultural moral values.

Other nihilists may argue not that there is no morality, but that if it does exist, it is a human construction and thus artificial, wherein any and all meaning is relative for different possible outcomes. As an example, if someone kills someone else, such a nihilist might argue that killing is not inherently a bad thing, or bad independently from our moral beliefs, because of the way morality is constructed as some rudimentary dichotomy. What is said to be a bad thing is given a higher negative weighting than what is called good: as a result, killing the individual was bad because it did not let the individual live, which was arbitrarily given a positive weighting. In this way, such a nihilist believes that all moral claims are void of any objective truth value. An alternative scholarly perspective is that moral nihilism is a morality in itself. Cooper writes, "In the widest sense of the word 'morality', moral nihilism is a morality."[12]

Ontological nihilism asserts that nothing is actually real; that is, reality does not actually exist, but is merely a thoroughly-constructed illusion.[13]

Political nihilism follows the characteristic nihilist's rejection of non-rationalized or non-proven assertions; in this case the necessity of the most fundamental social and political structures, such as government, family, and law. An influential analysis of political nihilism is presented by Leo Strauss.[14]

The Russian Nihilist movement was a Russian trend in the 1860s that rejected all authority.[15] After the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, the Nihilists gained a reputation throughout Europe as proponents of the use of violence for political change.[citation needed] The Nihilists expressed anger at what they described as the abusive nature of the Eastern Orthodox Church and of the tsarist monarchy, and at the domination of the Russian economy by the aristocracy. Although the term Nihilism was coined by the German theologian Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (17431818), its widespread usage began with the 1862 novel Fathers and Sons by the Russian author Ivan Turgenev. The main character of the novel, Yevgeny Bazarov, who describes himself as a Nihilist, wants to educate the people. The "go to the people be the people" campaign reached its height in the 1870s, during which underground groups such as the Circle of Tchaikovsky, the People's Will, and Land and Liberty formed. It became known as the Narodnik movement, whose members believed that the newly freed serfs were merely being sold into wage slavery in the onset of the Industrial Revolution, and that the middle and upper classes had effectively replaced landowners. The Russian state attempted to suppress the nihilist movement. In actions described by the Nihilists as propaganda of the deed many government officials were assassinated. In 1881 Alexander II was killed on the very day he had approved a proposal to call a representative assembly to consider new reforms.

Scientific nihilism is the doctrine that we should have very little confidence in scientific conclusions, such as findings, analysis and attempts to understand or predict future natural events, including but not limited to meteorological predictions.[16][17]

The concept of nihilism was discussed by the Buddha (563 B.C. to 483 B.C.), as recorded in the Theravada and Mahayana Tripiaka.[18] The Tripiaka, originally written in Pali, refers to nihilism as natthikavda and the nihilist view as micchdihi.[19][20] Various sutras within it describe a multiplicity of views held by different sects of ascetics while the Buddha was alive, some of which were viewed by him to be morally nihilistic. In the Doctrine of Nihilism in the Apannaka Sutta, the Buddha describes moral nihilists as holding the following views:[21][22]

The Buddha then states that those who hold these views will not see the danger in misconduct and the blessings in good conduct and will, therefore, avoid good bodily, verbal and mental conduct; practicing misconduct instead.[21]

The culmination of the path that the Buddha taught was Nirvana, "a place of nothingness... nonpossession and... non-attachment... [which is] the total end of death and decay".[23] In an article Ajahn Amaro, a practicing Buddhist monk of more than 30 years, observes that in English 'nothingness' can sound like nihilism. However the word could be emphasised in a different way, so that it becomes 'no-thingness', indicating that Nirvana is not a thing you can find, but rather a state where you experience the reality of non-grasping.[23]

In the Alagaddupama Sutta, the Buddha describes how some individuals feared his teaching because they believe that their 'self' would be destroyed if they followed it. He describes this as an anxiety caused by the false belief in an unchanging, everlasting 'self'. All things are subject to change and taking any impermanent phenomena to be a 'self' causes suffering. Nonetheless, his critics called him a nihilist who teaches the annihilation and extermination of an existing being. The Buddha's response was that he only teaches the cessation of suffering. When an individual has given up craving and the conceit of 'I am' their mind is liberated, they no longer come into any state of 'being' and are no longer born again.[24]

The Aggivacchagotta Sutta records a conversation between the Buddha and an individual named Vaccha that further elaborates on this. In it Vaccha asks the Buddha to confirm one of the following, with respect to the existence of the Buddha after death:[25]

To all four questions, the Buddha answers that the terms 'appear', 'not appear', 'does and does not reappear' and 'neither does nor does not reappear' do not apply. When Vaccha expresses puzzlement, the Buddha asks Vaccha a counter question to the effect of: if a fire were to go out and someone were to ask you whether the fire went north, south, east or west, how would you reply? Vaccha replies that the question does not apply and that an extinguished fire can only be classified as 'out'.[25]

Thanissaro Bikkhu elaborates on the classification problem around the words 'reappear' etc. with respect to the Buddha and Nirvana by stating that a "person who has attained the goal [Nirvana] is thus indescribable because [they have] abandoned all things by which [they] could be described".[26] The Suttas themselves describe the liberated mind as 'untraceable' or as 'consciousness without feature', making no distinction between the mind of a liberated being that is alive and the mind of one that is no longer alive.[24][27]

Despite the Buddha's explanations to the contrary, Buddhist practitioners may, at times, still approach Buddhism in a nihilistic manner. Ajahn Amaro illustrates this by retelling the story of a Buddhist monk, Ajahn Sumedho, who in his early years took a nihilistic approach to Nirvana. A distinct feature of Nirvana in Buddhism is that an individual attaining it is no longer subject to rebirth. Ajahn Sumedho, during a conversation with his teacher Ajahn Chah, comments that he is "determined above all things to fully realize Nirvana in this lifetime... deeply weary of the human condition and ... [is] determined not to be born again". To this, Ajahn Chah replies: "what about the rest of us, Sumedho? Don't you care about those who'll be left behind?" Ajahn Amaro comments that Ajahn Chah could detect that his student had a nihilistic aversion to life rather than true detachment.[28] Ajahn Chah's answer clearly points to the Mahayana concept of the Bodhisattva, i.e. the consummated practitioner who renounces to obtain his own Nirvana and procrastinates his own liberation until everyone else has obtained it. Such concept is not to be found in the Theravada tradition as expressed in the Pali canon, which is mainly focused on individual liberation through the four stages of enlightenment culminating with the Arahant stage. Therefore, Ajahn Sumedho was correct in his interpretation of the teachings, and Ajahn Chah sought to mitigate and soften the nihilistic content of the original Theravada tradition blending Hinayana and Mahayana concepts.

The term nihilism was first used by Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (17431819). Jacobi used the term to characterize rationalism[29] and in particular Immanuel Kant's "critical" philosophy to carry out a reductio ad absurdum according to which all rationalism (philosophy as criticism) reduces to nihilismand thus it should be avoided and replaced with a return to some type of faith and revelation. Bret W. Davis writes, for example, "The first philosophical development of the idea of nihilism is generally ascribed to Friedrich Jacobi, who in a famous letter criticized Fichte's idealism as falling into nihilism. According to Jacobi, Fichte's absolutization of the ego (the 'absolute I' that posits the 'not-I') is an inflation of subjectivity that denies the absolute transcendence of God."[30] A related but oppositional concept is fideism, which sees reason as hostile and inferior to faith.

With the popularizing of the word nihilism by Ivan Turgenev, a new Russian political movement called the Nihilist movement adopted the term. They supposedly called themselves nihilists because nothing "that then existed found favor in their eyes".[31] This movement was significant enough that, even in the English speaking world, at the turn of the 20th century the word nihilism without qualification was almost exclusively associated with this Russian revolutionary sociopolitical movement.[32]

Sren Kierkegaard (18131855) posited an early form of nihilism, which he referred to as leveling.[33] He saw leveling as the process of suppressing individuality to a point where an individual's uniqueness becomes non-existent and nothing meaningful in one's existence can be affirmed:

Levelling at its maximum is like the stillness of death, where one can hear one's own heartbeat, a stillness like death, into which nothing can penetrate, in which everything sinks, powerless. One person can head a rebellion, but one person cannot head this levelling process, for that would make him a leader and he would avoid being levelled. Each individual can in his little circle participate in this levelling, but it is an abstract process, and levelling is abstraction conquering individuality.

Kierkegaard, an advocate of a philosophy of life, generally argued against levelling and its nihilistic consequences, although he believed it would be "genuinely educative to live in the age of levelling [because] people will be forced to face the judgement of [levelling] alone."[34] George Cotkin asserts Kierkegaard was against "the standardization and levelling of belief, both spiritual and political, in the nineteenth century," and that Kierkegaard "opposed tendencies in mass culture to reduce the individual to a cipher of conformity and deference to the dominant opinion."[35] In his day, tabloids (like the Danish magazine Corsaren) and apostate Christianity were instruments of levelling and contributed to the "reflective apathetic age" of 19th century Europe.[36] Kierkegaard argues that individuals who can overcome the levelling process are stronger for it, and that it represents a step in the right direction towards "becoming a true self."[34][37] As we must overcome levelling,[38]Hubert Dreyfus and Jane Rubin argue that Kierkegaard's interest, "in an increasingly nihilistic age, is in how we can recover the sense that our lives are meaningful".[39]

Note, however, that Kierkegaard's meaning of "nihilism" differs from the modern definition, in the sense that, for Kierkegaard, levelling led to a life lacking meaning, purpose or value,[36] whereas the modern interpretation of nihilism posits that there was never any meaning, purpose or value to begin with.

Nihilism is often associated with the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who provided a detailed diagnosis of nihilism as a widespread phenomenon of Western culture. Though the notion appears frequently throughout Nietzsche's work, he uses the term in a variety of ways, with different meanings and connotations. Karen L. Carr describes Nietzsche's characterization of nihilism "as a condition of tension, as a disproportion between what we want to value (or need) and how the world appears to operate."[40] When we find out that the world does not possess the objective value or meaning that we want it to have or have long since believed it to have, we find ourselves in a crisis.[41] Nietzsche asserts that with the decline of Christianity and the rise of physiological decadence,[clarification needed] nihilism is in fact characteristic of the modern age,[42] though he implies that the rise of nihilism is still incomplete and that it has yet to be overcome.[43] Though the problem of nihilism becomes especially explicit in Nietzsche's notebooks (published posthumously), it is mentioned repeatedly in his published works and is closely connected to many of the problems mentioned there.

Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. This observation stems in part from Nietzsche's perspectivism, or his notion that "knowledge" is always by someone of some thing: it is always bound by perspective, and it is never mere fact.[44] Rather, there are interpretations through which we understand the world and give it meaning. Interpreting is something we can not go without; in fact, it is something we need. One way of interpreting the world is through morality, as one of the fundamental ways that people make sense of the world, especially in regard to their own thoughts and actions. Nietzsche distinguishes a morality that is strong or healthy, meaning that the person in question is aware that he constructs it himself, from weak morality, where the interpretation is projected on to something external.

Nietzsche discusses Christianity, one of the major topics in his work, at length in the context of the problem of nihilism in his notebooks, in a chapter entitled "European Nihilism".[45] Here he states that the Christian moral doctrine provides people with intrinsic value, belief in God (which justifies the evil in the world) and a basis for objective knowledge. In this sense, in constructing a world where objective knowledge is possible, Christianity is an antidote against a primal form of nihilism, against the despair of meaninglessness. However, it is exactly the element of truthfulness in Christian doctrine that is its undoing: in its drive towards truth, Christianity eventually finds itself to be a construct, which leads to its own dissolution. It is therefore that Nietzsche states that we have outgrown Christianity "not because we lived too far from it, rather because we lived too close".[46] As such, the self-dissolution of Christianity constitutes yet another form of nihilism. Because Christianity was an interpretation that posited itself as the interpretation, Nietzsche states that this dissolution leads beyond skepticism to a distrust of all meaning.[47][48]

Stanley Rosen identifies Nietzsche's concept of nihilism with a situation of meaninglessness, in which "everything is permitted." According to him, the loss of higher metaphysical values that exist in contrast to the base reality of the world, or merely human ideas, gives rise to the idea that all human ideas are therefore valueless. Rejecting idealism thus results in nihilism, because only similarly transcendent ideals live up to the previous standards that the nihilist still implicitly holds.[49] The inability for Christianity to serve as a source of valuating the world is reflected in Nietzsche's famous aphorism of the madman in The Gay Science.[50] The death of God, in particular the statement that "we killed him", is similar to the self-dissolution of Christian doctrine: due to the advances of the sciences, which for Nietzsche show that man is the product of evolution, that Earth has no special place among the stars and that history is not progressive, the Christian notion of God can no longer serve as a basis for a morality.

One such reaction to the loss of meaning is what Nietzsche calls passive nihilism, which he recognises in the pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer's doctrine, which Nietzsche also refers to as Western Buddhism, advocates separating oneself from will and desires in order to reduce suffering. Nietzsche characterises this ascetic attitude as a "will to nothingness", whereby life turns away from itself, as there is nothing of value to be found in the world. This mowing away of all value in the world is characteristic of the nihilist, although in this, the nihilist appears inconsistent: this "will to nothingness" is still a form of willing.[51] He describes this as "an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists:"

A nihilist is a man who judges of the world as it is that it ought not to be, and of the world as it ought to be that it does not exist. According to this view, our existence (action, suffering, willing, feeling) has no meaning: the pathos of 'in vain' is the nihilists' pathos at the same time, as pathos, an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists.

Nietzsche's relation to the problem of nihilism is a complex one. He approaches the problem of nihilism as deeply personal, stating that this predicament of the modern world is a problem that has "become conscious" in him.[52] According to Nietzsche, it is only when nihilism is overcome that a culture can have a true foundation upon which to thrive. He wished to hasten its coming only so that he could also hasten its ultimate departure.[42]

He states that there is at least the possibility of another type of nihilist in the wake of Christianity's self-dissolution, one that does not stop after the destruction of all value and meaning and succumb to the following nothingness. This alternate, 'active' nihilism on the other hand destroys to level the field for constructing something new. This form of nihilism is characterized by Nietzsche as "a sign of strength,"[53] a willful destruction of the old values to wipe the slate clean and lay down one's own beliefs and interpretations, contrary to the passive nihilism that resigns itself with the decomposition of the old values. This willful destruction of values and the overcoming of the condition of nihilism by the constructing of new meaning, this active nihilism, could be related to what Nietzsche elsewhere calls a 'free spirit'[54] or the bermensch from Thus Spoke Zarathustra and The Antichrist, the model of the strong individual who posits his own values and lives his life as if it were his own work of art. It may be questioned, though, whether "active nihilism" is indeed the correct term for this stance, and some question whether Nietzsche takes the problems nihilism poses seriously enough.[55]

Martin Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche influenced many postmodern thinkers who investigated the problem of nihilism as put forward by Nietzsche. Only recently has Heidegger's influence on Nietzschean nihilism research faded.[56] As early as the 1930s, Heidegger was giving lectures on Nietzsche's thought.[57] Given the importance of Nietzsche's contribution to the topic of nihilism, Heidegger's influential interpretation of Nietzsche is important for the historical development of the term nihilism.

Heidegger's method of researching and teaching Nietzsche is explicitly his own. He does not specifically try to present Nietzsche as Nietzsche. He rather tries to incorporate Nietzsche's thoughts into his own philosophical system of Being, Time and Dasein.[58] In his Nihilism as Determined by the History of Being (194446),[59] Heidegger tries to understand Nietzsche's nihilism as trying to achieve a victory through the devaluation of the, until then, highest values. The principle of this devaluation is, according to Heidegger, the will to power. The will to power is also the principle of every earlier valuation of values.[60] How does this devaluation occur and why is this nihilistic? One of Heidegger's main critiques on philosophy is that philosophy, and more specifically metaphysics, has forgotten to discriminate between investigating the notion of a being (Seiende) and Being (Sein). According to Heidegger, the history of Western thought can be seen as the history of metaphysics. And because metaphysics has forgotten to ask about the notion of Being (what Heidegger calls Seinsvergessenheit), it is a history about the destruction of Being. That is why Heidegger calls metaphysics nihilistic.[61] This makes Nietzsche's metaphysics not a victory over nihilism, but a perfection of it.[62]

Heidegger, in his interpretation of Nietzsche, has been inspired by Ernst Jnger. Many references to Jnger can be found in Heidegger's lectures on Nietzsche. For example, in a letter to the rector of Freiburg University of November 4, 1945, Heidegger, inspired by Jnger, tries to explain the notion of "God is dead" as the "reality of the Will to Power." Heidegger also praises Jnger for defending Nietzsche against a too biological or anthropological reading during the Nazi era.[63]

Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche influenced a number of important postmodernist thinkers. Gianni Vattimo points at a back-and-forth movement in European thought, between Nietzsche and Heidegger. During the 1960s, a Nietzschean 'renaissance' began, culminating in the work of Mazzino Montinari and Giorgio Colli. They began work on a new and complete edition of Nietzsche's collected works, making Nietzsche more accessible for scholarly research. Vattimo explains that with this new edition of Colli and Montinari, a critical reception of Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche began to take shape. Like other contemporary French and Italian philosophers, Vattimo does not want, or only partially wants, to rely on Heidegger for understanding Nietzsche. On the other hand, Vattimo judges Heidegger's intentions authentic enough to keep pursuing them.[64] Philosophers who Vattimo exemplifies as a part of this back and forth movement are French philosophers Deleuze, Foucault and Derrida. Italian philosophers of this same movement are Cacciari, Severino and himself.[65]Jrgen Habermas, Jean-Franois Lyotard and Richard Rorty are also philosophers who are influenced by Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche.[66]

Gilles Deleuze's interpretation of Nietzsche's concept of nihilism is different - in some sense diametrically opposed - to the usual definition (as outlined in the rest of this article). Nihilism is one of the main topics of Deleuze's early book Nietzsche and Philosophy (1962).[67] There, Deleuze repeatedly interprets Nietzsche's nihilism as "the enterprise of denying life and depreciating existence".[68] Nihilism thus defined is therefore not the denial of higher values, or the denial of meaning, but rather the depreciation of life in the name of such higher values or meaning. Deleuze therefore (with, he claims, Nietzsche) says that Christianity and Platonism, and with them the whole of metaphysics, are intrinsically nihilist.

Postmodern and poststructuralist thought has questioned the very grounds on which Western cultures have based their 'truths': absolute knowledge and meaning, a 'decentralization' of authorship, the accumulation of positive knowledge, historical progress, and certain ideals and practices of humanism and the Enlightenment.

Jacques Derrida, whose deconstruction is perhaps most commonly labeled nihilistic, did not himself make the nihilistic move that others have claimed. Derridean deconstructionists argue that this approach rather frees texts, individuals or organizations from a restrictive truth, and that deconstruction opens up the possibility of other ways of being.[69]Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, for example, uses deconstruction to create an ethics of opening up Western scholarship to the voice of the subaltern and to philosophies outside of the canon of western texts.[70] Derrida himself built a philosophy based upon a 'responsibility to the other'.[71] Deconstruction can thus be seen not as a denial of truth, but as a denial of our ability to know truth. That is to say, it makes an epistemological claim, compared to nihilism's ontological claim.

Lyotard argues that, rather than relying on an objective truth or method to prove their claims, philosophers legitimize their truths by reference to a story about the world that can't be separated from the age and system the stories belong toreferred to by Lyotard as meta-narratives. He then goes on to define the postmodern condition as characterized by a rejection both of these meta-narratives and of the process of legitimation by meta-narratives.

In lieu of meta-narratives we have created new language-games in order to legitimize our claims which rely on changing relationships and mutable truths, none of which is privileged over the other to speak to ultimate truth.[citation needed]

This concept of the instability of truth and meaning leads in the direction of nihilism, though Lyotard stops short of embracing the latter.[citation needed]

Postmodern theorist Jean Baudrillard wrote briefly of nihilism from the postmodern viewpoint in Simulacra and Simulation. He stuck mainly to topics of interpretations of the real world over the simulations of which the real world is composed. The uses of meaning were an important subject in Baudrillard's discussion of nihilism:

The apocalypse is finished, today it is the precession of the neutral, of forms of the neutral and of indifference...all that remains, is the fascination for desertlike and indifferent forms, for the very operation of the system that annihilates us. Now, fascination (in contrast to seduction, which was attached to appearances, and to dialectical reason, which was attached to meaning) is a nihilistic passion par excellence, it is the passion proper to the mode of disappearance. We are fascinated by all forms of disappearance, of our disappearance. Melancholic and fascinated, such is our general situation in an era of involuntary transparency.

In Nihil Unbound: Extinction and Enlightenment, Ray Brassier maintains that philosophy has avoided the traumatic idea of extinction, instead attempting to find meaning in a world conditioned by the very idea of its own annihilation. Thus Brassier critiques both the phenomenological and hermeneutic strands of Continental philosophy as well as the vitality of thinkers like Gilles Deleuze, who work to ingrain meaning in the world and stave off the "threat" of nihilism. Instead, drawing on thinkers such as Alain Badiou, Franois Laruelle, Paul Churchland, and Thomas Metzinger, Brassier defends a view of the world as inherently devoid of meaning. That is, rather than avoiding nihilism, Brassier embraces it as the truth of reality. Brassier concludes from his readings of Badiou and Laruelle that the universe is founded on the nothing,[72] but also that philosophy is the "organon of extinction," that it is only because life is conditioned by its own extinction that there is thought at all.[73] Brassier then defends a radically anti-correlationist philosophy proposing that Thought is conjoined not with Being, but with Non-Being.

The term Dada was first used by Richard Huelsenbeck and Tristan Tzara in 1916.[74] The movement, which lasted from approximately 1916 to 1923, arose during World War I, an event that influenced the artists.[75] The Dada Movement began in the old town of Zrich, Switzerland known as the "Niederdorf" or "Niederdrfli" in the Caf Voltaire.[76] The Dadaists claimed that Dada was not an art movement, but an anti-art movement, sometimes using found objects in a manner similar to found poetry.

The "anti-art" drive is thought[by whom?] to have stemmed from a post-war emptiness.[citation needed] This tendency toward devaluation of art has led many[who?] to claim that Dada was an essentially nihilistic movement.[citation needed] Given that Dada created its own means for interpreting its products, it is difficult to classify alongside most other contemporary art expressions. Due to perceived ambiguity, it has been classified as a nihilistic modus vivendi.[75]

The term "nihilism" was actually popularized in 1862 by Ivan Turgenev in his novel Fathers and Sons, whose hero, Bazarov, was a nihilist and recruited several followers to the philosophy. He found his nihilistic ways challenged upon falling in love.[77]

Anton Chekhov portrayed nihilism when writing Three Sisters. The phrase "what does it matter" or variants of this are often spoken by several characters in response to events; the significance of some of these events suggests a subscription to nihilism by said characters as a type of coping strategy.

The philosophical ideas of the French author, the Marquis de Sade, are often noted as early examples of nihilistic principles.[78]

Go here to see the original:
Nihilism - Wikipedia