Updated November 25, 2014.

Definition:

Evolutionary psychology is a theory of human behavior that incorporates the effects of evolution. As our ancestors confronted problems, they developed ways of solving those problems. Over time, the most successful solutions developed into basic instincts. We no longer need to consciously think about certain behaviors, as they simply come naturally. Those behaviors are tempered by input from our culture, family, and individual factors, but the underlying behaviors are instinctual.

At its most basic level, evolutionary psychology explains relatively simply topics. A common example is language acquisition. All humans, assuming normal physical structure, are capable of learning language. At some point in history, early man developed language skills beyond grunting and pointing. The ability to communicate complex thoughts was important for survival, and so language acquisition abilities evolved.

Which language or languages are learned depends on the language spoken in the home and neighborhood, demonstrating the importance of cultural input.

More complex evolutionary psychology theories attempt to explain more complicated behaviors. For example, many research studies have shown that we are more likely to fear snakes and spiders than other predatory animals such as lions and tigers. From an evolutionary point of view, this may be due to the fact that snakes and spiders are more difficult to spot. It made sense to our ancestors to look carefully for poisonous creatures before sticking their hands into woodpiles or overgrown brush (still a good idea today!). Over time, that caution became an instinctive human reaction.

Examples: Jill has been afraid of spiders since she was a toddler. After determining that she had never been bitten or seen someone bitten by a spider, her therapist explained that according to evolutionary psychology, Jill's fear might be an instinctive reaction.

The rest is here:
Evolutionary Psychology Definition and Examples

By Austin Cline

Creationism vs. Evolution:

Creationism does not have to be incompatible with evolution; there are many who believe in a creator god(s) and who also accept evolution. They may have deistic beliefs and believe a god started everything then let it run without interference. Theistic Evolution encompasses theism, some system of traditional religious beliefs, and the idea that a god or gods used evolution to develop life on earth.

What is Theistic Evolution?

Theistic evolutionists vary in how they believe their god intervened in the evolutionary process because those beliefs are connected to subtle details of other theological positions. They accept modern science on the fact that evolution occurs and how it occurs, but they rely on their god to explain things currently unexplained by science (like the origin of life) or outside the purview of science (like the origin of the soul).

What is Evolutionary Creationism?

There is little difference between Evolutionary Creationism and Theistic Evolution the only reason the term seems to exist is the theological importance of emphasizing the term Creationism rather than Evolution.

Theistic Evolution and Religion:

Theistic evolution is currently the position which is promoted by the Catholic Church, mainline Protestant denominations, Reform and Conservative Judaism, and other religious organizations which do not adopt a literalist position with regards to their scriptures and/or religious traditions. If God is somehow involved in the evolution process, what role does he play?

Theistic Evolutionists generally take one of three positions:

God controls apparently random events:

Modern science has revealed that what was once thought to be a deterministic universe has a random or probabilistic aspect at the quantum level. Quantum systems are, in one way or another, intrinsically unpredictable. This has provided an opening for some theologians and philosophers to argue that God operates in our world without also violating any natural laws. God directs the motion of matter an energy towards an end which he desires, but in a manner which seems unpredictable and random.

God designed the system:

The idea that God continues to be active in the natural world, but on the quantum level, suggests to many that God needs to keep tinkering with nature in order to get things to turn out as he wants. This, however, can be theologically unacceptable and has led some to adopt the position that God designed the universe right at the beginning to generate certain predetermined results (like human life). Constant interference outside of some important miracles isnt necessary.

God influences events:

This final possibility argues that God is always present and active in the universe, but doesnt control events or force them towards any particular outcome. Instead, God exerts influence on events in order to lead them to a desired outcome but the possibility exists that a different and undesired outcome may result. This position is often associated with Process Theology, a school of thought which portrays God not as omnipotent, but as learning and growing as the universe develops.

Problems With Theistic Evolution:

One of the problems for Theistic Evolution has been something known as the Neo-Darwinian Synthesis. Begun in the 1940s, this was a synthesis of the work being done by field biologists on the one hand and experimental work performed by geneticists on the other. This process managed to eliminate many of the mysteries in how evolution and natural selection work.

Why is this a problem? Traditionally, Theistic Evolution has relied on the idea that evolutionary theory hasnt been able to explain how evolution works. These mysteries were gaps in our understanding of nature and, as has happened so often in the relationship between religion and science, religious belief relied upon gaps in scientific knowledge which have become all but filled. Once those gaps are indeed filled, what is the basis for continuing religious belief and continuing Theistic Evolution?

Excerpt from:
Theistic Evolution & Evolutionary Creationism

Becoming a yoga teacher is a big step forward in your experience of yoga.

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If you want to learn a topic then teach it.

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Being able to share yoga with friends, family and clients is rewarding in many ways. Whether you are interested primarily in your own personal development or becoming a yoga teacher, we have a range of courses in which you can achieve both.

All of our courses have been developed in response to the enthusiasm of our students wanting to learn, practice, live and teach the science of yoga. Please read through the information provided and we encourage you to talk to us or any of our graduates with further queries.

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Personal growth, to teach family and friends, a change of career.

Learn an in-depth, integrated, holistic and progressive system of yoga ranging from beginning through to advanced levels.

Enjoy a highly practical and experiential orientation of training to help you become a confident and capable teacher and to develop a strong basis for ongoing personal practice, learning and development.

Benefit from a uniquely effective teaching system and style of presentation which springs from an authentic tradition of yoga combined with the several decades of personal experience, practice and learning of the instructors.

On-going support, training, mentorship, encouragement and involvement are available.

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Yoga is a life-long journey of discovery and we believe that it is much more than a system of physical development. We teach in a holistic way which emcompasses the deeper, more subtle aspects of yoga. Whilst definitely emphasising the physical body, our system also specifically works with the breath, the life-energy and the mind in order to help bring about a balanced state of wellbeing, vitality and a deeper attunement with our true inner-selves.

Yoga is a very broad science. You learn a systematic approach to classical yoga enabling you to teach for the whole personality. From the vast range of practices learnt, you can creatively and intuitively structure classes and programmes for your students individual and general needs.

For those of you inspired to make a deeper study of yoga we are committed to providing a complete system of training which guides students in a progressive and systematic way to develop a strong personal yoga practice and to become confident and capable to teach from beginners to advanced. We offer several courses for this and you can study to the level you so desire, within your own commitments and needs.

There is no requirement to do all of our teacher training courses, especially if you are doing it more for personal development. However, if you are wanting yoga to be your profession, we advise that you do complete all of them over a 2 5 year period.

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The courses train you to teach a complete system of yoga postures, breathing, relaxation and meditation.

Our yoga syllabus is taught in three levels:

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Level 1: beginner to intermediate

Level 2:intermediate to advanced

Level 3:advanced

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Each level takes you to a higher standard of proficiency. Level 1 is suitable for absolute beginners and starts with simple practices. By the end of Level 1 you will have built a firm foundation based on experience and understanding. This experience gives you the grounding to teach with confidence.

The Level 1 and 2 in particular are not just a weekend course per month, but rather six months of daily learning and growing. The workshop sessions, home practice and assignments are all part of this course and are all aspects of receiving your Teacher Training Certificate.

Each workshop session involves group dynamics and a specific group of postures; we also teach you pranayama, relaxation (yoga nidra) and meditation in a systematic way. Commitment to the weekend workshops and daily practice is essential. If for unavoidable reasons you are unable to attend one of the days, extra tuition is necessary for completion of the course and is not included in the course fee.

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Please note: there are no exams in our teacher training courses. There are assignments that we mark and give you feedback, but no tests. There is no way to fail any of the teacher training courses!

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Extra yogic courses and workshops are conducted throughout the year providing ongoing training, inspiration and deeper knowledge within specific areas (e.g. back care, pranayama, chakras, meditation, etc.) Most workshops and retreats are discounted for Ashram Yoga trainees or teachers. There are also regular teacher forums to swap ideas, information and learn new ways and methods of teaching from one another, Ashram Yoga teachers or guest teachers.

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The beginnings of Ashram Yoga may be traced back to1980 when Swami Shantimurti Saraswaticame toNew Zealandto teachyoga. Since these early days, we have worked ceaselessly for the development of yoga both within New Zealand and overseas.

Ashram Yogas unique teaching style is based on traditional yogabut also includes the senior instructors many years of experience of teaching yoga. We have developed a comprehensive, thorough and effective set of teachings. The range of practices we present are vast and taught from absolute beginners through to becoming an advance yoga instructor.

The range of practices we present are vast and taught from absolute beginners onwards. Teacher trainees are encouraged to incorporate their own experiences of yoga into the teachings. We also teach you how to apply yoga practices to any type of student, according to the level of the course you are studying.

Excerpt from:
Yoga Teacher Training | Ashram Yoga

The founder of Buddhism was Buddha Shakyamuni who lived and taught in India some two and a half thousand years ago. Since then millions of people around the world have followed the pure spiritual path he revealed. The Buddhist way of life of peace, loving kindness and wisdom is just as relevant today as it was in ancient India. Buddha explained that all our problems and suffering arise from confused and negative states of mind, and that all our happiness and good fortune arise from peaceful and positive states of mind. He taught methods for gradually overcoming our negative minds such as anger, jealousy and ignorance, and developing our positive minds such as love, compassion and wisdom. Through this we will come to experience lasting peace and happiness. These methods work for anyone, in any country, in any age. Once we have gained experience of them for ourselves we can pass them on to others so they too can enjoy the same benefits.

Meditation is at the heart of the Buddhist way of life. It is basically a method for understanding and working on our own mind. We first learn to identify our different negative mental states known as delusions, and learn how to develop peaceful and positive mental states or virtuous minds.

Then in meditation we overcome our delusions by becoming familiar with virtuous minds. Out of meditation we try to maintain the virtuous minds we have developed and use our wisdom to solve the problems of daily life. As our mind becomes more positive our actions become more constructive, and our experience of life becomes more satisfying and beneficial to others.

Anyone can learn basic meditation techniques and experience great benefits, but to progress beyond basic meditation requires faith in the Three Jewels Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. Usually people find this develops naturally as they experience the benefits of their meditation practice.

The teachings of Buddha reveal a step by step path to lasting happiness. By following this path anyone can gradually transform his or her mind from its present confused and self-centered state into the blissful mind of a Buddha.

As Geshe Kelsang says in his popular book Eight Steps to Happiness:

Every living being has the potential to become a Buddha, someone who has completely purified his or her mind of all faults and limitations and has brought all good qualities to perfection. Our mind is like a cloudy sky, in essence clear and pure but overcast by the clouds of delusions.

Just as the thickest clouds eventually disperse, so too even the heaviest delusions can be removed from our mind. Delusions such as hatred, greed, and ignorance are not an intrinsic part of the mind. If we apply the appropriate methods they can be completely eliminated, and we shall experience the supreme happiness of full enlightenment.

Having attained enlightenment we shall have all the necessary qualities universal love and compassion, omniscient wisdom and boundless spiritual power to lead all living beings to the same exalted state. This is the ultimate aim of Mahayana Buddhism.

To find out more about basic Buddhism, read Introduction to Buddhism by Geshe Kelsang Gyatso.

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What is Buddhism | About Buddhism

Who was Buddha? In general, Buddha means Awakened One, someone who has awakened from the sleep of ignorance and sees things as they really are. A Buddha is a person who is completely free from all faults and mental obstructions. Introduction to Buddhism

The founder of Buddhism in this world was Buddha Shakyamuniwho lived and gave teachings in India some two and a half thousand years ago. Since then millions of people around world have followed the spiritual path he revealed.The Buddhist way of life of peace, loving kindness and wisdom can be just as relevant today as it was in ancient India.Buddha explained that all our problems and suffering arise from confused and negative states of mind, and that all our happiness and good fortune arise from peaceful and positive states of mind.

Buddha taught methods for gradually overcoming our negative minds such as anger, jealousy and ignorance, and developing our positive minds such as love, compassion and wisdom. Through this we can come to experience lasting peace and happiness.

These methods can work for anyone, in any country, in any age. Once we have gained experience of them for ourselves we can pass them on to others so they too can enjoy the same benefits.

Meditation is at the heart of the Buddhist way of life. It is essentially a method for understanding and working on our own mind. We first learn to identify our different negative mental states known as delusions, and learn how to develop peaceful and positive mental states or virtuous minds.

During meditation we overcome our delusions by becoming familiar with these virtuous minds. During the meditation break, when we are out of meditation, we try to maintain the virtuous minds we have developed and use our wisdom to solve the problems of daily life.

As our mind becomes more positive our actions become more constructive, and our experience of life becomes more satisfying and beneficial to others.

Anyone can learn basic meditation techniques and experience great benefits, but to progress beyond basic meditation requires faith in the Three Jewels Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. Usually people find this develops naturally as they experience the benefits of their meditation practice.

We dont need to change our activities; we just need to change our mind. Busy lives are perfect conditions for practicing Dharma and training our mind. Our work and family, for example, are ideal places to reduce our attachment and self-cherishing and improve our cherishing of others.

With practical Dharma methods in our heart, we will be more prepared for any challenges that may arise and actually be able to grow from the different circumstances we encounter. We will also be able to spread joy and peace to others.

Kadampa Buddhism is a Mahayana Buddhist school founded by the great Indian Buddhist Master Atisha (AD 9821054). His followers are known as Kadampas.

Kadampa Buddhists are encouraged to use Buddhas teachings as practical methods for transforming daily activities into the spiritual path. Kadam Dharma accords with peoples daily experience; it cannot be separated from daily life.

Over 1,200 Kadampa Buddhist Centers and groups in over 30 countries offer study programs on Buddhist psychology, philosophy, and meditation instruction, as well as retreats for all levels of practitioner. The emphasis is on integrating Buddhas teachings into daily life to solve our human problems and to spread lasting peace and happiness throughout the world.

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KMC New York | What is Buddhism?

For centuries, Buddhism has been the dominant religion of the Eastern world. Today it remains the predominant religion in China, Japan, Korea, and much of southeast Asia. With the rise of the Asian population in the U.S., Buddhism has made a tremendous impact in the United States. Presently, there are over 300,000 Buddhists in the U.S. It remains the dominant religion in the state of Hawaii and many prominent Americans have accepted this religion, including the former governor of California, Jerry Brown.(1)

Buddhism began as an offspring of Hinduism in the country of India. The founder was Siddhartha Gautama. It is not easy to give an accurate historical account of the life of Gautama, since no biography was recorded until hundreds of years after his death. Today, much of his life story is clouded in myths and legends which arose after his death. Even the best historians of our day have several different--and even contradictory--accounts of Gautama's life.

Siddhartha Gautama was born in approximately 560 B.C. in northern India. His father Suddhodana was the ruler over a district near the Himalayas which is today the country of Nepal. Suddhodana sheltered his son from the outside world and confined him to the palace where he surrounded Gautama with pleasures and wealth. Despite his father's efforts, Gautama one day saw the darker side of life on a trip he took outside the palace walls.

He saw four things that forever changed his life: an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a beggar. Deeply distressed by the suffering he saw, he decided to leave the luxury of palace life and begin a quest to find the answer to the problem of pain and human suffering.

Gautama left his family and traveled the country seeking wisdom. He studied the Hindu scriptures under Brahmin priests, but became disillusioned with the teachings of Hinduism. He then devoted himself to a life of extreme asceticism in the jungle. Legend has it that he eventually learned to exist on one grain of rice a day which reduced his body to a skeleton. He soon concluded, however, that asceticism did not lead to peace and self realization but merely weakened the mind and body.

Gautama eventually turned to a life of meditation. While deep in meditation under a fig tree known as the Bohdi tree (meaning, "tree of wisdom"), Gautama experienced the highest degree of God-consciousness called Nirvana. Gautama then became known as Buddha, the "enlightened one." He believed he had found the answers to the questions of pain and suffering. His message now needed to be proclaimed to the whole world.

As he began his teaching ministry, he gained a quick audience with the people of India since many had become disillusioned with Hinduism. By the time of his death at age 80, Buddhism had become a major force in India. Three centuries later it had spread to all of Asia. Buddha never claimed to be deity but rather a "way- shower." However, seven hundred years later, followers of Buddha began to worship him as deity.(2)

The question Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, sought to answer was, Why is there pain and suffering? Also, he held to the Hindu belief of reincarnation: after death one returns to earthly life in a higher or lower form of life according to his good or bad deeds. This belief prompted a second question that needed to be answered, How does one break this rebirth cycle? The basic teachings of Buddhism, therefore, focus on what Gautama believed to be the answer to these questions. These basic tenants are found in the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-fold Path. Let us begin with the Four Noble Truths.

The First Noble Truth is that there is pain and suffering in the world. Gautama realized that pain and suffering are omnipresent in all of nature and human life. To exist means we will all encounter suffering. Birth is painful and so is death. Sickness and old age are painful. Throughout life, all living things encounter suffering.

The Second Noble Truth relates to the cause of suffering. Gautama believed the root cause of suffering is desire. It is the craving for wealth, happiness, and other forms of selfish enjoyment which cause suffering. These cravings can never be satisfied for they are rooted in ignorance.

The Third Noble Truth is the end of all suffering. Suffering will cease when a person can rid himself of all desires.

The Fourth Noble Truth is the extinguishing of all desire by following the eight-fold path. "The eight-fold path is a system of therapy designed to develop habits which will release people from the restrictions caused by ignorance and craving."(3)

Here are the eight steps in following the eight-fold path. The first is the Right Views. One must accept the four noble truths. Step two is the Right Resolve. One must renounce all desires and any thoughts like lust, bitterness, and cruelty. He must harm no living creature. Step three is the Right Speech. One must speak only truth. There can be no lying, slander, or vain talk. Step four is the Right Behavior. One must abstain from sexual immorality, stealing, and all killing.

Step five is the Right Occupation. One must work in an occupation that benefits others and harms no one. Step six is the Right Effort. One must seek to eliminate any evil qualities within and prevent any new ones from arising. One should seek to attain good and moral qualities and develop those already possessed. Seek to grow in maturity and perfection until universal love is attained. Step seven is the Right Contemplation. One must be observant, contemplative, and free of desire and sorrow. The eighth is the Right Meditation. After freeing oneself of all desires and evil, a person must concentrate his efforts in meditation so that he can overcome any sensation of pleasure or pain and enter a state of transcending consciousness and attain a state of perfection. Buddhists believe that through self effort one can attain the state of peace and eternal bliss called Nirvana.

Three important concepts in understanding Buddhism are karma, Samsara, and Nirvana.

Karma refers to the law of cause and effect in a person's life, reaping what one has sown. Buddhists believe that every person must go through a process of birth and rebirth until he reaches the state of nirvana in which he breaks this cycle. According to the law of karma, "You are what you are and do what you do, as a result of what you were and did in a previous incarnation, which in turn was the inevitable outcome of what you were and did in still earlier incarnations."(4) For a Buddhist, what one will be in the next life depends on one's actions in this present life. Buddha believed, unlike Hinduism, that a person can break the rebirth cycle no matter what class he is born into.

The second key concept to understand is the law of Samsara or Transmigration. This is one of the most perplexing and difficult concepts in Buddhism to understand. The law of Samsara holds that everything is in a birth and rebirth cycle. Buddha taught that people do not have individual souls. The existence of an individual self or ego is an illusion. There is no eternal substance of a person which goes through the rebirth cycle. What is it then that goes through the cycle if not the individual soul? What goes through the rebirth cycle is only a set of feelings, impressions, present moments, and the karma that is passed on. "In other words, as one process leads to another, ... so one's human personality in one existence is the direct cause of the type of individuality which appears in the next."(5) The new individual in the next life will not be exactly the same person, but there will be several similarities. Just how close in identity they will be, Buddha did not define.

The third key concept is Nirvana. The term means "the blowing out" of existence. Nirvana is very different from the Christian concept of heaven. Nirvana is not a place like heaven but rather a state of being. What exactly it is, Buddha never really articulated.

Nirvana is an eternal state of being. It is the state in which the law of karma, and the rebirth cycle come to an end. It is the end of suffering, a state where there are no desires and the individual consciousness comes to an end. Although to our Western minds this may sound like annihilation, Buddhists would object to such a notion. Gautama never gave an exact description of Nirvana, but his closest reply was this. "There is disciples, a condition, where there is neither earth nor water, neither air nor light, neither limitless space, nor limitless time, neither any kind of being, neither ideation nor non-ideation, neither this world nor that world. There is neither arising nor passing-away, nor dying, neither cause nor effect, neither change nor standstill."(6) Although no Buddhist really understands the condition of Nirvana, it is their eternal hope.

It may have occurred to the reader that in our discussion thus far no mention has been made of God or an eternal deity. It is clear that Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, did not claim to be divine. He claimed to be the one to point the way to Nirvana, but it was up to each individual to find his own way there.

The concept of a personal God does not fit into the Buddhist system of religion. Today there are many sects of Buddhism. Many differ in their concept of the divine and of Buddha. In general, Buddhists are pantheistic in their view of God. Many view God as an impersonal force which is made up of all living things and holds the universe together.

Here are what some of the most prominent of scholars say of the Buddhist view of God. Dr. John Noss states, "there is no sovereign Person in the heavens holding all together in unity, there is only the ultimate impersonal unity of being itself, whose peace enfolds the individual self when it ceases to call itself 'I' and dissolves in the featureless purity of Nirvana, as a drop of spray is merged in its mother sea."(7)

Here is what the late Dr. Suzuki, one of the greatest teachers of Zen Buddhism, says about his concept of God: "If God after making the world puts Himself outside it, He is no longer God. If He separates Himself from the world or wants to separate Himself, He is not God. The world is not the world when it is separated from God. God must be in the world and the world in God."(8)

Since Buddhism in general does not believe in a personal God or divine being, it does not have worship, praying, or praising of a divine being. It offers no form of redemption, forgiveness, heavenly hope, or final judgment. Buddhism is, therefore, more of a moral philosophy, an ethical way of life.

Professor Kraemer describes the Buddhist system as "a non-theistic ethical discipline, a system of self training, anthropocentric, stressing ethics and mind-culture to the exclusion of theology."(9)

Since Gautama's death, many sects have developed within Buddhism. Many of these sects differ in many fundamental ways and comparing them to one another is like comparing two separate religions. Many sects have developed their own unique concept of God. Some are pantheistic in their view of God. Others are atheistic. Still others have developed a polytheistic system of gods. Some have combined pantheism and polytheism. Several sects have elevated Gautama (or Buddha) to the level of a savior or divine being although it is clear he never claimed to be a deity. Other sects have combined some of the doctrines of God from other religions with Buddhism.

Since Buddha never emphasized his concept of the divine, Buddhism is left with some life's deepest questions unanswered, questions such as the origin of the universe and the purpose of man's existence.

It is quite clear that Christianity and Buddhism differ from one another in fundamental ways. Some sects of Buddhism have tried to synchronize the two together. However, the two are so different, they cannot both be right at the same time, nor can the two be blended together. Here is a comparison of these two religions.

Much of the Buddhist scriptures and sayings attributed to Gautama were written about four hundred years after his death. By the time they were written, Buddhism had split into many sects. What do we have then? Even the best scholars are not sure of the accuracy of the Buddhist scriptures. In Christianity, however, we have an accurate historical account written by eyewitnesses to Jesus and the events surrounding His life.

The two differ in their concept of God. For Buddhists in general, the Absolute does not play a vital role in daily living. Gautama said little about his concept of God. Buddha denied the existence of a personal God but was monistic in his view of the Absolute as an impersonal force made up of all living things. The Bible teaches of a God who rules the universe, and cares for man in a personal way. Psalm 46:10 states, "Be still and know that I am God. I will be exalted among the nations, I will be exalted among the earth."

It is clear that Buddha never claimed to be deity. Although several sects have elevated him to athe status of a god, he clearly claimed to be only the way-shower to Nirvana. Jesus, however, claimed to be God and not simply a way-shower but instead the only way to eternal life. Jesus said in John 14:6, "I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." John 1:1 also states, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God."

There is another clear distinction between these two religions. Buddhism offers neither assurance of forgiveness or eternal life. Buddhists hope to enter into the state of Nirvana, but there is no clear, objective proof or teaching on what occurs beyond the grave. Even Buddha himself was not certain what lay beyond death. He left no clear teaching on Nirvana or eternity. What he did leave are philosophical speculations. Today the body of Buddha lies in a grave in Kusinara, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. The facts of life after death still remain an unsolved mystery in Buddhism.

In Christianity we have One who amazed His audience because He taught eternal truths with authority. His authority came from the fact that He existed before creation, and He proved His claims by rising from the dead. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ is a proven fact of history and clearly demonstrates Christ's authority over sin and death. When witnessing to a Buddhist, ask him this: "Do you have tangible proof of what occurs after death?" All the Buddhist has is hope in a teaching Buddha was not sure of. As Christians, we have a certain hope in a risen Savior. There is no guessing what happens beyond the grave because Christ alone has conquered the grave.

1994 Probe Ministries

1. Walter Martin, Kingdom of the Cults (Minneapolis: Bethany House 1985), p. 261.

2. Kenneth Boa, Cults, World Religions, and the Occult (Wheaton: Victor Books, (1977) p. 35.

3. Ibid. p. 32.

4. Davis Taylor and Clark Offner, The World's Religions, Norman Anderson, ed. (Grand Rapids: InterVarsity, 1975), p. 174.

5. John Noss, Man's Religions (New York: Macmillan Company, 1968), p. 182.

6. Taylor & Offner, p. 177.

7. Noss, p. 183.

8. D. T. Suzuki, The Field of Zen (London: The Buddhist Society, 1969), p. 16.

9. Taylor & Offner, p. 177.

Boa, Kenneth. Cults, World Religions, and the Occult. Wheaton: Victor Books, 1977.

Gard, Richard. Buddhism. New York: George Braziller, 1962.

Martin, Walter. The Kingdom of the Cults. Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1985.

_____ The New Cults. Ventura: Regal Books, 1980.

McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart. Handbook of Today's Religions. San Bernadino: Here's Life, 1982.

Noss, John. Man's Religions. New York: Macmillan Company, 1968.

Parrinder, Geoffrey. World Religions From Ancient History to the Present. New York: Facts on File, 1971.

Suzuki, D.T. The Field of Zen. London: Harper and Row, 1969.

_____ The Gospel According to Zen. New York: Mentor Books, 1970.

Read the original:
Buddhism - LeaderU.com

Sacred-texts home Journal Articles: Buddhism OCRT: Buddhism Buy CD-ROM Buy Books about Buddhism Modern works Southern Buddhism Northern Buddhism Jataka Links Modern works

The Gospel of Buddha: Compiled from Ancient Records by Paul Carus [1909] A modern retelling of the Buddha's work and life.

Buddha, the Word by Paul Carus

Amitabha by Paul Carus [1906] Buddhist concepts of God, non-violence, and religious tolerance.

The Buddhist Catechism by Henry S. Olcott (42nd. ed.) [1908] A unity platform for Buddhists, drawn up by Buddhism's first modern western convert.

The Creed of Buddha by Edmond Holmes (2nd. ed.) [1919] A Pantheist looks at contemporary Western views of Buddhism.

The Life of Buddha by Andre Ferdinand Herold [1922], tr. by Paul C. Blum [1927] A good introduction to the life and works of Buddha.

A Buddhist Bible by Dwight Goddard (1st ed.) [1932] An edited (but not watered-down) collection of key Zen documents, a favorite of Jack Kerouac. This anthology has had a huge influence on the spread of Buddhism in the English-speaking world.

The Smokey the Bear Sutra by Gary Snyder. A much beloved short poem about the relationship between Buddhism and ecology, written by one of the 'beat' era poets, simultaneously funny and profound.

The Dhammapada and The Sutta Nipta (SBE10), Dhammapada tr. by Max Mller; Sutta-Nipta tr. by V. Fausbll [1881]

Buddhist Suttas (SBE11) Translated from Pli by T.W. Rhys Davids [1881]

Vinaya Texts (Part I) (SBE13) Translated from the Pli by T.W. Rhys Davids and Herman Oldenberg. [1881] The Ptimokkha and The Mahvagga, I-IV.

Vinaya Texts (Part II) (SBE17) Translated from the Pli by T.W. Rhys Davids and Herman Oldenberg. [1882] The Mahvagga, V-X, and The Kullavagga, I-III.

Vinaya Texts (Part III) (SBE20) Translated from the Pli by T.W. Rhys Davids and Herman Oldenberg. [1885] The Kullavagga, IV-XII.

The Questions of King Milinda translated by T. W. Rhys Davids The Questions of King Milinda, Part I (SBE35) [1890] The Questions of King Milinda, Part II (SBE36) [1894]

Dialogues of the Buddha (The Dgha-Nikya) Translated from the Pli by T.W. Rhys Davids; London, H. Frowde, Oxford University Press [1899] Volume II of the Sacred Books of the Buddhists.

Buddhism in Translations by Henry Clarke Warren [1896] A often-cited scholarly anthology of translations of key Theravada Buddhist documents. (thanks to Chris Weimer)

The Udna Translated by Dawsonne Melanchthon Strong [1902] (thanks to Chris Weimer)

Psalms of the Sisters by Caroline A. F. Rhys Davids [1909] (Thanks to Mary Mark Ockerbloom of A Celebration of Women Writers)

The Buddha's Way of Virtue tr. by W.D.C. Wagiswara and K.J. Saunders [1920] A translation of the Dhammapada, one of the central Buddhist sacred texts.

The Jataka is a huge collection of fables framed as previous incarnations of the Buddha, many of which either have parallels or derivatives in western folklore and literature. Although the Jataka is not considered part of the canonical Buddhist scripture, it is very popular. Each tale usually has a concise moral, and the entire collection is a browsers' delight.

The Jataka, Vol. I tr. by Robert Chalmers ed. E.B. Cowell [1895] The first of six volumes of the complete Cowell translation of the Jataka.

The Jataka, Vol. II tr. by W. H. D. Rouse ed. E.B. Cowell [1895] The second of six volumes of the complete Cowell translation of the Jataka.

The Jataka, Vol. III tr. by H.T. Francis, ed. E.B. Cowell [1897] The third of six volumes of the complete Cowell translation of the Jataka.

The Jataka, Vol. IV tr. by W.H.D. Rouse, ed. E.B. Cowell [1901] The fourth of six volumes of the complete Cowell translation of the Jataka.

The Jataka, Vol. V tr. by H.T. Francis, ed. E.B. Cowell [1905] The fifth of six volumes of the complete Cowell translation of the Jataka.

The Jataka, Vol. VI tr. by E.B. Cowell, and W.H.D. Rouse [1907] The sixth and final volume of the complete Cowell translation of the Jataka.

Indian Fairy Tales by Joseph Jacobs [1912] A collection of Indian folklore, retold for younger readers 'of all ages', includes many stories from the Jataka, a Buddhist compilation of fables.

Jataka Tales by Ellen C. Babbit [1912] A collection of Jataka stories, fables about previous incarnations of the Buddha, usually as an animal, retold for younger readers.

Buddhist Scriptures by E. J. Thomas [1913] A short collection of Buddhist scripture, from the Wisdom of the East series.

The Fo-Sho-Hing-Tsan-King (SBE19) A Life of Buddha by Asvaghosha Bodhisattva, translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by Dharmaraksha A.D. 420, and From Chinese into English by Samuel Beal [1883]

Buddhist Mahyna Texts (SBE 49) [1894] Translated by E.B. Cowell, F. Max Mller, and J. Kakakusu. Includes the Diamond Sutra.

Saddharma-pundarka (The Lotus Sutra) (SBE 21) tr. by H. Kern [1884]

She-rab Dong-bu (The Tree of Wisdom) by Nagarjuna; edited and translated by W. L. Cambell [1919] An influential Tibetan Buddhist text.

Esoteric Teachings of the Tibetan Tantra edited and translated by C.A. Muss [1961] Includes Seven Initation Rituals of the Tibetan Tantra, the Six Yogas of Naropa, plus the Vow of Mahamudra.

Avaghosha's Discourse on the Awakening of Faith in the Mahyna tr. by Teitaro Suzuki [1900]

The Awakening of Faith of Ashvagosha tr. by Timothy Richard [1907]

The Path of Light tr. by L.D. Barnett [1909] A translation of the Bodhicharyavatara of Santideva, a key Mahayana Buddhist text.

The Gateless Gate by Ekai [Huikai], called Mu-mon, tr. by Nyogen Senzaki and Paul Reps [1934] One of the classic collections of Zen Buddhist Koans.

Chinese Buddhism by Joseph Edkins [1893] A comprehensive discussion of Chinese Buddhism.

Buddhism In Tibet by Emil Schlaginteweit [1863] One of the few 19th century books about Tibetan Buddhism.

The Religion of the Samurai by Kaiten Nukariya [1913] This book focuses on Northern (Mahayana) Buddhism, and Zen Buddhism in particular. It includes a wealth of detail as well as very lucid explanations of Zen Buddhist concepts.

Shinran and His Work: Studies in Shinshu Theology by Arthur Lloyd [1910] A Christian scholar explores Shinshu Buddhism. Includes text and translation of the Shoshinge of Shinran Shonen, with extended commentary.

The Creed of Half Japan by Arthur Lloyd [1911] A comprehensive history of Mahayana Buddhism, particularly in Japan, and possible ties to Gnosticism and early Christianity. Includes two translated texts from the Nichiren school.

Principal Teachings of the True Sect of Pure Land by Yejitsu Okusa [1915] The history and practice of Pure Land Buddhism in Japan.

Buddhist Psalms by S. Yamabe and L. Adams Beck [1921] A key Pure Land text, by the founder of the most popular form of Buddhism in Japan.

Manual of Zen Buddhism by Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki. [1935] An anthology of texts relating to Zen. Suzuki was one of the most popular 20th century writers about Zen Buddhism. Includes the famous 'Ox-Herder' illustrations.

Zen for Americans by Soyen Shaku, translated by Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki. [1906] A collection of essays on Buddhism. Includes The Sutra of Forty-Two Chapters.

Mysticism, Christian and Buddhist by Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki. [1957, not renewed] Suzuki compares and contrasts Buddhism with Meister Eckhart's mystical outlook.

Gleanings In Buddha-Fields by Lafcadio Hearn [1897].

The N Plays of Japan by Arthur Waley [1921]. Translations of a selection of N dramas, which have deep connections with Japanese Buddhism, Shinto, and Japanese folklore.

Buddhism and Immortality by William Sturgis Bigelow [1908]. A essay on Karma and Nirvana in the light of Darwin and Emerson.

India in Primitive Christianity by Arthur Lillie [1909]. What are the links between Buddhism and early Christianity?

The Way to Nirvana by L. de la Valle Poussin [1917]. Investigating Buddhist thought on rebirth and transcendence.

KAKUZO OKAKURA The Book of Tea by Kakuzo Okakura [1906] The aesthetics of the Japanese Tea Ceremony, and its connection to the Japanese world-view as a whole. The Ideals of the East by Kakuzo Okakura [1904] The evolution of Japanese art and its relationship to Buddhism.

Journal Articles about Buddhism A collection of academic journal articles about Buddhism from the 19th Century.

These are collections of files harvested from the Internet on these popular Buddhist topics: Tibetan Buddhism: Archives Zen Buddhism: Archives

For more translations of Southern Buddhist texts, we highly recommend Access to Insight [External Site].

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Sacred Texts: Buddhism

Nihilism is the belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be known or communicated. It is often associated with extreme pessimism and a radical skepticism that condemns existence. A true nihilist would believe in nothing, have no loyalties, and no purpose other than, perhaps, an impulse to destroy. While few philosophers would claim to be nihilists, nihilism is most often associated with Friedrich Nietzsche who argued that its corrosive effects would eventually destroy all moral, religious, and metaphysical convictions and precipitate the greatest crisis in human history. In the 20th century, nihilistic themes--epistemological failure, value destruction, and cosmic purposelessness--have preoccupied artists, social critics, and philosophers. Mid-century, for example, the existentialists helped popularize tenets of nihilism in their attempts to blunt its destructive potential. By the end of the century, existential despair as a response to nihilism gave way to an attitude of indifference, often associated with antifoundationalism.

"Nihilism" comes from the Latin nihil, or nothing, which means not anything, that which does not exist. It appears in the verb "annihilate," meaning to bring to nothing, to destroy completely. Early in the nineteenth century, Friedrich Jacobi used the word to negatively characterize transcendental idealism. It only became popularized, however, after its appearance in Ivan Turgenev's novel Fathers and Sons (1862) where he used "nihilism" to describe the crude scientism espoused by his character Bazarov who preaches a creed of total negation.

In Russia, nihilism became identified with a loosely organized revolutionary movement (C.1860-1917) that rejected the authority of the state, church, and family. In his early writing, anarchist leader Mikhael Bakunin (1814-1876) composed the notorious entreaty still identified with nihilism: "Let us put our trust in the eternal spirit which destroys and annihilates only because it is the unsearchable and eternally creative source of all life--the passion for destruction is also a creative passion!" (Reaction in Germany, 1842). The movement advocated a social arrangement based on rationalism and materialism as the sole source of knowledge and individual freedom as the highest goal. By rejecting man's spiritual essence in favor of a solely materialistic one, nihilists denounced God and religious authority as antithetical to freedom. The movement eventually deteriorated into an ethos of subversion, destruction, and anarchy, and by the late 1870s, a nihilist was anyone associated with clandestine political groups advocating terrorism and assassination.

The earliest philosophical positions associated with what could be characterized as a nihilistic outlook are those of the Skeptics. Because they denied the possibility of certainty, Skeptics could denounce traditional truths as unjustifiable opinions. When Demosthenes (c.371-322 BC), for example, observes that "What he wished to believe, that is what each man believes" (Olynthiac), he posits the relational nature of knowledge. Extreme skepticism, then, is linked to epistemological nihilism which denies the possibility of knowledge and truth; this form of nihilism is currently identified with postmodern antifoundationalism. Nihilism, in fact, can be understood in several different ways. Political Nihilism, as noted, is associated with the belief that the destruction of all existing political, social, and religious order is a prerequisite for any future improvement. Ethical nihilism or moral nihilism rejects the possibility of absolute moral or ethical values. Instead, good and evil are nebulous, and values addressing such are the product of nothing more than social and emotive pressures. Existential nihilism is the notion that life has no intrinsic meaning or value, and it is, no doubt, the most commonly used and understood sense of the word today.

Max Stirner's (1806-1856) attacks on systematic philosophy, his denial of absolutes, and his rejection of abstract concepts of any kind often places him among the first philosophical nihilists. For Stirner, achieving individual freedom is the only law; and the state, which necessarily imperils freedom, must be destroyed. Even beyond the oppression of the state, though, are the constraints imposed by others because their very existence is an obstacle compromising individual freedom. Thus Stirner argues that existence is an endless "war of each against all" (The Ego and its Own, trans. 1907).

Among philosophers, Friedrich Nietzsche is most often associated with nihilism. For Nietzsche, there is no objective order or structure in the world except what we give it. Penetrating the faades buttressing convictions, the nihilist discovers that all values are baseless and that reason is impotent. "Every belief, every considering something-true," Nietzsche writes, "is necessarily false because there is simply no true world" (Will to Power [notes from 1883-1888]). For him, nihilism requires a radical repudiation of all imposed values and meaning: "Nihilism is . . . not only the belief that everything deserves to perish; but one actually puts one's shoulder to the plough; one destroys" (Will to Power).

The caustic strength of nihilism is absolute, Nietzsche argues, and under its withering scrutiny "the highest values devalue themselves. The aim is lacking, and 'Why' finds no answer" (Will to Power). Inevitably, nihilism will expose all cherished beliefs and sacrosanct truths as symptoms of a defective Western mythos. This collapse of meaning, relevance, and purpose will be the most destructive force in history, constituting a total assault on reality and nothing less than the greatest crisis of humanity:

What I relate is the history of the next two centuries. I describe what is coming, what can no longer come differently: the advent of nihilism. . . . For some time now our whole European culture has been moving as toward a catastrophe, with a tortured tension that is growing from decade to decade: restlessly, violently, headlong, like a river that wants to reach the end. . . . (Will to Power)

Since Nietzsche's compelling critique, nihilistic themes--epistemological failure, value destruction, and cosmic purposelessness--have preoccupied artists, social critics, and philosophers. Convinced that Nietzsche's analysis was accurate, for example, Oswald Spengler in The Decline of the West (1926) studied several cultures to confirm that patterns of nihilism were indeed a conspicuous feature of collapsing civilizations. In each of the failed cultures he examines, Spengler noticed that centuries-old religious, artistic, and political traditions were weakened and finally toppled by the insidious workings of several distinct nihilistic postures: the Faustian nihilist "shatters the ideals"; the Apollinian nihilist "watches them crumble before his eyes"; and the Indian nihilist "withdraws from their presence into himself." Withdrawal, for instance, often identified with the negation of reality and resignation advocated by Eastern religions, is in the West associated with various versions of epicureanism and stoicism. In his study, Spengler concludes that Western civilization is already in the advanced stages of decay with all three forms of nihilism working to undermine epistemological authority and ontological grounding.

In 1927, Martin Heidegger, to cite another example, observed that nihilism in various and hidden forms was already "the normal state of man" (The Question of Being). Other philosophers' predictions about nihilism's impact have been dire. Outlining the symptoms of nihilism in the 20th century, Helmut Thielicke wrote that "Nihilism literally has only one truth to declare, namely, that ultimately Nothingness prevails and the world is meaningless" (Nihilism: Its Origin and Nature, with a Christian Answer, 1969). From the nihilist's perspective, one can conclude that life is completely amoral, a conclusion, Thielicke believes, that motivates such monstrosities as the Nazi reign of terror. Gloomy predictions of nihilism's impact are also charted in Eugene Rose's Nihilism: The Root of the Revolution of the Modern Age (1994). If nihilism proves victorious--and it's well on its way, he argues--our world will become "a cold, inhuman world" where "nothingness, incoherence, and absurdity" will triumph.

While nihilism is often discussed in terms of extreme skepticism and relativism, for most of the 20th century it has been associated with the belief that life is meaningless. Existential nihilism begins with the notion that the world is without meaning or purpose. Given this circumstance, existence itself--all action, suffering, and feeling--is ultimately senseless and empty.

In The Dark Side: Thoughts on the Futility of Life (1994), Alan Pratt demonstrates that existential nihilism, in one form or another, has been a part of the Western intellectual tradition from the beginning. The Skeptic Empedocles' observation that "the life of mortals is so mean a thing as to be virtually un-life," for instance, embodies the same kind of extreme pessimism associated with existential nihilism. In antiquity, such profound pessimism may have reached its apex with Hegesis. Because miseries vastly outnumber pleasures, happiness is impossible, the philosopher argues, and subsequently advocates suicide. Centuries later during the Renaissance, William Shakespeare eloquently summarized the existential nihilist's perspective when, in this famous passage near the end of Macbeth, he has Macbeth pour out his disgust for life:

Out, out, brief candle! Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more; it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing.

In the twentieth century, it's the atheistic existentialist movement, popularized in France in the 1940s and 50s, that is responsible for the currency of existential nihilism in the popular consciousness. Jean-Paul Sartre's (1905-1980) defining preposition for the movement, "existence precedes essence," rules out any ground or foundation for establishing an essential self or a human nature. When we abandon illusions, life is revealed as nothing; and for the existentialists, nothingness is the source of not only absolute freedom but also existential horror and emotional anguish. Nothingness reveals each individual as an isolated being "thrown" into an alien and unresponsive universe, barred forever from knowing why yet required to invent meaning. It's a situation that's nothing short of absurd. Writing from the enlightened perspective of the absurd, Albert Camus (1913-1960) observed that Sisyphus' plight, condemned to eternal, useless struggle, was a superb metaphor for human existence (The Myth of Sisyphus, 1942).

The common thread in the literature of the existentialists is coping with the emotional anguish arising from our confrontation with nothingness, and they expended great energy responding to the question of whether surviving it was possible. Their answer was a qualified "Yes," advocating a formula of passionate commitment and impassive stoicism. In retrospect, it was an anecdote tinged with desperation because in an absurd world there are absolutely no guidelines, and any course of action is problematic. Passionate commitment, be it to conquest, creation, or whatever, is itself meaningless. Enter nihilism.

Camus, like the other existentialists, was convinced that nihilism was the most vexing problem of the twentieth century. Although he argues passionately that individuals could endure its corrosive effects, his most famous works betray the extraordinary difficulty he faced building a convincing case. In The Stranger (1942), for example, Meursault has rejected the existential suppositions on which the uninitiated and weak rely. Just moments before his execution for a gratuitous murder, he discovers that life alone is reason enough for living, a raison d'tre, however, that in context seems scarcely convincing. In Caligula (1944), the mad emperor tries to escape the human predicament by dehumanizing himself with acts of senseless violence, fails, and surreptitiously arranges his own assassination. The Plague (1947) shows the futility of doing one's best in an absurd world. And in his last novel, the short and sardonic, The Fall (1956), Camus posits that everyone has bloody hands because we are all responsible for making a sorry state worse by our inane action and inaction alike. In these works and other works by the existentialists, one is often left with the impression that living authentically with the meaninglessness of life is impossible.

Camus was fully aware of the pitfalls of defining existence without meaning, and in his philosophical essay The Rebel (1951) he faces the problem of nihilism head-on. In it, he describes at length how metaphysical collapse often ends in total negation and the victory of nihilism, characterized by profound hatred, pathological destruction, and incalculable violence and death.

By the late 20th century, "nihilism" had assumed two different castes. In one form, "nihilist" is used to characterize the postmodern person, a dehumanized conformist, alienated, indifferent, and baffled, directing psychological energy into hedonistic narcissism or into a deep ressentiment that often explodes in violence. This perspective is derived from the existentialists' reflections on nihilism stripped of any hopeful expectations, leaving only the experience of sickness, decay, and disintegration.

In his study of meaninglessness, Donald Crosby writes that the source of modern nihilism paradoxically stems from a commitment to honest intellectual openness. "Once set in motion, the process of questioning could come to but one end, the erosion of conviction and certitude and collapse into despair" (The Specter of the Absurd, 1988). When sincere inquiry is extended to moral convictions and social consensus, it can prove deadly, Crosby continues, promoting forces that ultimately destroy civilizations. Michael Novak's recently revised The Experience of Nothingness (1968, 1998) tells a similar story. Both studies are responses to the existentialists' gloomy findings from earlier in the century. And both optimistically discuss ways out of the abyss by focusing of the positive implications nothingness reveals, such as liberty, freedom, and creative possibilities. Novak, for example, describes how since WWII we have been working to "climb out of nihilism" on the way to building a new civilization.

In contrast to the efforts to overcome nihilism noted above is the uniquely postmodern response associated with the current antifoundationalists. The philosophical, ethical, and intellectual crisis of nihilism that has tormented modern philosophers for over a century has given way to mild annoyance or, more interestingly, an upbeat acceptance of meaninglessness.

French philosopher Jean-Francois Lyotard characterizes postmodernism as an "incredulity toward metanarratives," those all-embracing foundations that we have relied on to make sense of the world. This extreme skepticism has undermined intellectual and moral hierarchies and made "truth" claims, transcendental or transcultural, problematic. Postmodern antifoundationalists, paradoxically grounded in relativism, dismiss knowledge as relational and "truth" as transitory, genuine only until something more palatable replaces it (reminiscent of William James' notion of "cash value"). The critic Jacques Derrida, for example, asserts that one can never be sure that what one knows corresponds with what is. Since human beings participate in only an infinitesimal part of the whole, they are unable to grasp anything with certainty, and absolutes are merely "fictional forms."

American antifoundationalist Richard Rorty makes a similar point: "Nothing grounds our practices, nothing legitimizes them, nothing shows them to be in touch with the way things are" ("From Logic to Language to Play," 1986). This epistemological cul-de-sac, Rorty concludes, leads inevitably to nihilism. "Faced with the nonhuman, the nonlinguistic, we no longer have the ability to overcome contingency and pain by appropriation and transformation, but only the ability to recognize contingency and pain" (Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, 1989). In contrast to Nietzsche's fears and the angst of the existentialists, nihilism becomes for the antifoundationalists just another aspect of our contemporary milieu, one best endured with sang-froid.

In The Banalization of Nihilism (1992) Karen Carr discusses the antifoundationalist response to nihilism. Although it still inflames a paralyzing relativism and subverts critical tools, "cheerful nihilism" carries the day, she notes, distinguished by an easy-going acceptance of meaninglessness. Such a development, Carr concludes, is alarming. If we accept that all perspectives are equally non-binding, then intellectual or moral arrogance will determine which perspective has precedence. Worse still, the banalization of nihilism creates an environment where ideas can be imposed forcibly with little resistance, raw power alone determining intellectual and moral hierarchies. It's a conclusion that dovetails nicely with Nietzsche's, who pointed out that all interpretations of the world are simply manifestations of will-to-power.

It has been over a century now since Nietzsche explored nihilism and its implications for civilization. As he predicted, nihilism's impact on the culture and values of the 20th century has been pervasive, its apocalyptic tenor spawning a mood of gloom and a good deal of anxiety, anger, and terror. Interestingly, Nietzsche himself, a radical skeptic preoccupied with language, knowledge, and truth, anticipated many of the themes of postmodernity. It's helpful to note, then, that he believed we could--at a terrible price--eventually work through nihilism. If we survived the process of destroying all interpretations of the world, we could then perhaps discover the correct course for humankind:

I praise, I do not reproach, [nihilism's] arrival. I believe it is one of the greatest crises, a moment of the deepest self-reflection of humanity. Whether man recovers from it, whether he becomes master of this crisis, is a question of his strength. It is possible. . . . (Complete Works Vol. 13)

Alan Pratt Email: pratta@db.erau.edu Embry-Riddle University U. S. A.

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Nihilism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Alan Wilson Watts, (6 januari 1915 16 november 1973) var en brittisk filosof, frfattare och talare, mest knd som en introduktr av sterlndsk filosofi fr en vsterlndsk publik. Under sin livstid uppndde han gurustatus - trots att han kraftfullt avsade sig alla sdana ansprk - och hann skriva flera bcker om sterlndskt tnkande.

Watts skrev mer n 25 bcker och artiklar om mnen som r viktiga fr den st -och vsterlndska religionen, dr The Way of Zen (1957) anses som en av de frsta storsljande bckerna om zen och buddhism. I Psychotherapy East and West (1961) freslog Watts att buddhismen skulle ses som en form av psykoterapi och inte bara en religion. Liksom Aldous Huxley fre honom, utforskade han det mnskliga medvetandet i uppsatsen "The New Alchemy" (1958), och i boken, The Joyous Cosmology (1962).

Mot slutet av sitt liv, pendlade han mellan att bo p en husbt i Sausalito och en stuga p berget Tamalpais. Hans arv har hllits vid liv av hans son, Mark Watts, och genom mnga av hans inspelade samtal och frelsningar som har hittat nytt liv p Internet.

Watts vxte upp med sina frldrar i byn Chislehurst, Kent, dr moderns familj var religis.[1] Alan lste ofta sagobcker, och fick tidigt ett intresse i fabler och romantiska berttelser om den mystiska Fjrran stern.[2] Hans mor fick ofta besk av missionrer, som efter deras resor till Kina hade med sig landskapsmlningar och broderier. Dessa konstverk betonade det deltagande frhllandet mellan mnniskan i naturen, ett tema som hade stor inverkan p Watts och stod fast genom hela hans liv.

Watts sg sig sjlv som fantasifull, egensinnig, och pratsam. Han skickades i unga r till internatskolor, dr bde de religisa och akademiska utbildningarna hade ett kristet fokus. Av denna religisa utbildning anmrkte han "Under hela min skolgng blev min religisa indoktrinering bister och grtmild ..."[3] Under en semester i tonren trffade han fransmannen Francis Croshaw, en frmgen epikur med ett starkt intresse i buddhismen, som tog med Watts p en resa genom Frankrike. Det drjde inte lnge innan Watts knde sig tvingad att vlja mellan den anglikanska kristendomen han utsatts fr, och buddhismen han hade lst om i olika bibliotek. Han valde buddhismen och skte medlemskap i Londons buddhistiska sllskap. Han blev som 16-ring organisationens sekreterare (1931), och underskte flera stilar av meditation under dessa r.

Efter gymnasiet sysselsatte sig Watts med diverse olika arbeten, men fortsatte ocks lsa mycket filosofi, historia, psykologi, psykiatri och sterlndsk visdom. Han tillbringade mycket av fritiden p den buddhistiska lodgen, vilket gav Watts ett stort antal mjligheter till personlig utveckling. r 1936, 21 r gammal, deltog han i "World Congress of Faiths" vid University of London och fick trffa D.T. Suzuki, som var en uppskattad forskare i Zen Buddhism. Dessa diskussioner och personliga mten, tillsammans med egna studier av den tillgngliga vetenskapliga litteraturen, gav Watts de grundlggande koncepten hos de viktigaste filosofierna i Indien och stasien.

r 1936 publicerades Watts frsta bok , The Spirit of Zen, som Suzuki varit en mycket stor influens till.

r 1938 lmnade han England fr att leva i Amerika. Han hade gift sig med Eleanor Everett, vars mor var involverad i en traditionell Zen buddhistisk cirkel i New York. Ngra r senare gifte sig Eleanors mor med en japansk zen-mstare, som under en tid tjnade som ett slags mentor till Watts.

Watts lmnade den formella Zen utbildning i New York d lrarnas metoder inte passade honom. Han knde ett behov av att hitta ett professionell utlopp fr sina filosofiska bjelser och skrev in sig p en anglikansk skola i Illinois, dr han studerade de kristna skrifterna, teologi och kyrkans historia. Han frskte arbeta fram en blandning av samtida kristen tillbedjan, mystisk kristendom och asiatisk filosofi. Watts fick en magisterexamen i teologi som svar p sin avhandling, som han publicerade som en populr utgva under titeln Behold the Spirit. Mnstret var tydligt, eftersom Watts inte lt dlja sin motvilja fr religisa skdningar vilka han fann var strnga, skuldtyngda eller militant missionerande - oavsett om de grundar sig i judendomen, kristendomen, hinduismen eller buddhismen.

1950 lmnar Watts ministeriet och flyttar ret drp till San Francisco, dr han anslt sig till fakulteten American Academy of Asian Studies. Hr undervisade han tillsammans med experter och professorer, men studerade ven sjlv vidare i omrdena japanska sedvnjor, konst, primitivism samt olika naturuppfattningar. Frutom undervisning, tjnade Watts under flera r som akademins administratr.

I mitten av 1950-talet lmnade han fakulteten fr en frilansande karrir. I den lokala radion brjade han nu snda radioprogram, som med tiden kom att f ett stort flje och fortsatte att sndas ven lngt efter hans dd. 1957 vid 42 rs lder, publicerade Watts en av hans mest knda bcker, The Way of Zen. Frutom livsstilen och den filosofiska bakgrunden till Zen, i Indien och Kina, infrde Watts ven ider hmtade frn den allmnna semantiken. Boken slde bra, och kom med tiden att bli en modern klassiker. Runt denna tid reste Watts runt i Europa med sin far, dr han bl.a. mtte den bermda psykiatern Carl Jung.

Nr han tervnde till USA inledde han sitt utforskande av psykedeliska droger och dess effekter, bl.a. LSD och meskalin tillsammans med olika forskargrupper. Han prvade ocks marijuana och konstaterade att det var en nyttig och intressant psykofarmaka, som gav intryck av att tiden saktar ner. Watts bcker under 60-talet visar tydligt det inflytande dessa kemiska ventyr hade p honom. Han skulle senare kommentera psykedeliskt droganvndande, "Nr du fr meddelandet, lgg p luren."[4]

Watts upptcktsfrder och egna undervisning frde honom i kontakt med mnga noterade intellektuella, konstnrer och amerikanska lrare inom miljrrelsen, men han har ven kritiserats av olika buddhister som menar att han medvetet feltolkat flera viktiga begrepp inom Zen Buddhism.

Trots att han aldrig stannade en lngre tid i ngon akademisk institution, hade han under flera r ett stipendium p Harvard University. Han frelste ocks fr mnga hgskole- och universitetsstudenter. Hans frelsningar och bcker gav honom lngtgende inflytande p den amerikanska intelligentsian under 1950-talet 1970-talet, men han ansgs ofta som en outsider i den akademiska vrlden. Watts menade att han inte var en akademisk filosof, utan snarare "en filosofisk underhllare."

Watts r knd fr sina lror inom Zen, men var ven minst lika pverkad av de gamla hinduiska skrifterna. Han talade mycket om den gudomliga verkligheten, om hur vr grundlggande okunnighet har sina rtter i den exklusiva karaktren hos sinnet och egot - hur man kommer i kontakt med omrdet fr medvetandet och andra kosmiska principer.

P det personliga planet frskte Watts upplsa sina knslor av alienation frn olika institutioner, bl.a. ktenskapet och de olika vrdena i det amerikanska samhllet. Nr vi ser p sociala frgor var han angelgen om ndvndigheten av internationell fred, och fr tolerans och frstelse mellan olika kulturer.

D han misstrodde bde den etablerade politiska vnstern och hgern, hittade Watts inspiration i den vise kinesiska Chuang-tzu , en gammal taoistisk tnkare. Han ogillade mycket i den konventionella idn om "framsteg." Han hoppades p frndring, men personligen fredrog han den isolerade landsbygdens sociala enklaver. Watts frdmde urbaniseringen av landsbygden och livsstilen som fljde.

Under en frelsningsturn framlade Watts positiva bilder fr bde naturen och mnskligheten, talade till frmn fr olika stadier av human utveckling (inklusive tonren), och prisade intelligent kreativitet, god arkitektur och mat.

Watts knde att "absolut" moral inte hade ngot att gra med det grundlggande frverkligandet av ens djupa andliga identitet. Han fresprkade en social etik snarare n den personliga. I sina skrifter blev Watts alltmer oroad ver den etik som gller fr relationerna mellan mnniskan och den naturliga miljn, samt mellan regeringar och medborgare.

Watts sade ofta att han nskade att fungera som en bro mellan det antika och det moderna, mellan st och vst, och mellan kultur och natur.

I flera av hans senare publikationer lgger Watts fram en vrldsbild, utifrn hinduismen, kinesisk filosofi, panteism, och modern vetenskap, dr han hvdar att hela universum bestr av en kosmiskt sjlvspelande kurragmma. I denna vrldsbild, hvdar Watts att vr uppfattning om oss sjlva som ett "ego i en pse av hud" r en myt.

Alan Watts var gift tre gnger och hade sju barn, fem dttrar och tv sner. Hans ldste son, Mark Watts, arbetar fr nrvarande som intendent fr faderns arbete.

Han levde sina sista r vid olika tidpunkter p en husbt i Sausalito, Kalifornien, och ibland i en avskilt stuga p berget Tamalpais. I oktober 1973 tervnde Watts frn en anstrngande EU-frelsningsturn till denna stuga. Den 16 november 1973 dog Watts i smnen av hjrtsvikt.

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Alan Watts Wikipedia

Amazon.com Review

Trying to "change" negative thoughts through cognitive gymnastics is like trying to win a war single-handedly. Why waste a life trying the impossible? In Get Out of Your Mind and Into Your Life: The New Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, advocate Dr. Steven Hayes escorts the mildly depressed, angry, and anxiety prone through a new approach to handling suffering--universal human suffering caused by language's illusions. Rather than fighting off bad thoughts and feelings with internal pep talks, Hayes beautifully explains how to embrace those pessimistic and foreboding mental voices (much like welcoming home one's cranky, play-worn children), "defuse" them with respectful attention, and commit to leading a purposeful life that includes their occasional ranting.

Intriguing exercises help readers identify their core struggles, parse these into manageable pieces, and develop effective ways to move beyond rumination. The work progresses easily, thanks to Hayes' engaging style and his grace in coaching readers. Critics of cognitive and behavioral therapies will warm to Hayes' logical explanations of language's pitfalls (even language used by other therapeutic approaches); his sometimes goofy--but surprisingly effective--exercises; well-timed etymology lessons; and his uncanny ability to predict and skillfully address reader reactions throughout the workbook. Ironically, the path to life clocks many hours in the mind; plan to dedicate an intensive month of introspection to this program. Anyone who has been accused of thinking too much, who begrudges compliments, pines for a different life, or feels trapped at a mental dead end can benefit from Hayes' superior guidance.--Liane Thomas

Dr. Steven Hayes answers a few questions about his book, and describes how his research was inspired by his own struggles with panic and anxiety.

Questions for Steven Hayes

Amazon.com: Can you give us a lay person's primer on acceptance and commitment therapy?

Steven Hayes: Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is based on a rather remarkable fact: when normal problem solving skills are applied to psychologically painful thoughts or feelings, suffering often increases. Our research program has shown this in thousands of patients, in almost every area of human suffering. Fortunately, we have discovered why this is and we have developed some ways of correcting it.

The basic research underlying ACT shows that entanglement with your own mind leads automatically to experiential avoidance: the tendency to try first to remove or change negative thoughts and feelings as a method of life enhancement. This attempted sequence makes negative thoughts and feelings more central, important, and fearsome--and often decreasing the ability to be flexible, effective, and happy.

The trick that traps us is that these unhelpful mental processes are fed by agreement OR disagreement. Your mind is like a person who has to be right about everything. If you know any people like that you know that they are excited when you agree with them but they can be even more excited and energized when you argue with them! Minds are like that. So what do you do?

ACT teaches you what to do. I will say what that is, but readers need to understand that these mere words will not be useful in and of themselves. Minds are too clever for that! That is why the book has so many exercises and why we have a free discussion group on line for people working through the book (http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/ACT_for_the_Public/). What ACT teaches is acceptance of emotions, mindful awareness of thoughts, contact with a transcendent sense of self, and action based on chosen values. This constellation of skills has shown itself in controlled research to help with an amazingly large range of problems, from anxiety to managing the challenges of physical disease, from depression, to stopping smoking.

Amazon.com: Some of this work is said to have come from your own battles with anxiety and panic. How did these ideas apply to your own struggles?

Steven Hayes: It was my own panic disorder that first put me on to the problem we have now confirmed in our research. My panic disorder began a little over 25 years ago. I watched in horror as it grew rapidly, simply by applying my normal problem solving skills to it. Anxiety felt awful and seemingly made it impossible to function, so it was obvious to me that I first needed to get rid of it before my life would improve. I tried lots of things to do that. But this very effort meant I had to constantly evaluate my level of anxiety, and fearfully check to see if it was going up or down as a result of my efforts. As a result, anxiety quickly became the central focus of my life. Anxiety itself became something to be anxious about, and meanwhile life was put on hold.

After two or three years of this I'd had enough. I began to experiment with acceptance, mindfulness, and valued action instead of detecting, disputing, and changing my insides.

I remember a moment that symbolizes the change in direction. In the middle of a panic attack, with a guttural scream like you hear in the movies, I literally shouted out loud to my own mind. "You can make me feel pain, you can make me feel anxiety," I yelled. "But you cannot make me turn away from my own experience."

It has not been a smooth path and it was several years before anxiety itself was obviously way down (getting it to go down was no longer my purpose, remember, but ironically when you stop trying to make it happen, often it does), but almost immediately life opened up again. ACT is the result of over 20 years of research, following the lead this provided.

Amazon.com: You are a language researcher and chapter two of Get Out of Your Mind and Into Your Life is called "Why Language Leads to Suffering." Can you tell us why you suggest that language is a source of human suffering?

Steven Hayes: Human language (by that I mean our symbolic abilities generally) is central to effective human cognition. It evolved to keep us from starving or being eaten--and it has done a pretty good job of that.

The key to symbolic processes is the ability to relate events in new and arbitrary ways. Our research program has shown this ability even in 14 month old babies, and we now know it comes from direct training from parents and others as part of normal language development. It is a wonderful skill. It allows us to imagine futures that have never been, and to compare situations that have never actually been experienced. That is the every essence of human verbal problem solving.

But that same process has a downside for human beings. For example, it allows us to fear things we have never experienced (e.g., death). It allows us to run from the past or compare the dull present to a fantasized future and to be unhappy as a result. And in my case it lead to the common sense but ultimately unhelpful idea that I needed to get rid of anxiety before I could live well.

We get a lot of training in how to develop and use our minds, but we get very little training in how to step out of the mental chatter when that is needed. As a result, this mental tool begins to use us. It will even claim to BE us. The overextension of human language and cognition, I believe, is at the core of the vast majority of human suffering in the developed world and human technology (the media) is only amplifying the problem by exposing us to an ever increasing stream of symbols and images. Learning how to get out of your mind and into your life when you need to do that is an essential skill in the modern world.

This manual, firmly based on cutting-edge psychological science and theory, details an innovative and rapidly growing approach that can provide you with the power to transform your very experience of life. Highly recommended for all of us. David H. Barlow, professor of psychology, research professor of psychiatry, and director of the Center for Anxiety and Related Disorders at Boston University.

This is the quintessential workbook on acceptance and commitment therapy. Written with wit, clinical wisdom, and compassionate skepticism, it succeeds in showing us that, paradoxically, there is great therapeutic value in going out of our minds. Once released from the struggle with thought, we are free to discover that a life of meaning and value is closer at hand than thought allowed. This book will serve patients, therapists, researchers, and educators looking for an elegant exposition of the nuts and bolts of this exciting approach. Zindel V. Segal, Ph.D., the Morgan Firestone Chair in Psychotherapy and professor of psychiatry and psychology at the University of Toronto and author of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression.

This book is a user-friendly tool for clinicians who may be looking for adjunct handouts for clients with a wide variety of issues. Exercises found within can help deepen, structure, or guide experiences contacted in session. As a stand-alone self-help book, it brings to light the guiding principles that make ACT such an empowering approach. I highly recommend this book to clinicians and laypeople alike. Sandra Georgescu, Psy.D., assistant professor at the Chicago School of Professional Psychology.

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