For centuries, Buddhism has been the dominant religion of the Eastern world. Today it remains the predominant religion in China, Japan, Korea, and much of southeast Asia. With the rise of the Asian population in the U.S., Buddhism has made a tremendous impact in the United States. Presently, there are over 300,000 Buddhists in the U.S. It remains the dominant religion in the state of Hawaii and many prominent Americans have accepted this religion, including the former governor of California, Jerry Brown.(1)

Buddhism began as an offspring of Hinduism in the country of India. The founder was Siddhartha Gautama. It is not easy to give an accurate historical account of the life of Gautama, since no biography was recorded until hundreds of years after his death. Today, much of his life story is clouded in myths and legends which arose after his death. Even the best historians of our day have several different--and even contradictory--accounts of Gautama's life.

Siddhartha Gautama was born in approximately 560 B.C. in northern India. His father Suddhodana was the ruler over a district near the Himalayas which is today the country of Nepal. Suddhodana sheltered his son from the outside world and confined him to the palace where he surrounded Gautama with pleasures and wealth. Despite his father's efforts, Gautama one day saw the darker side of life on a trip he took outside the palace walls.

He saw four things that forever changed his life: an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a beggar. Deeply distressed by the suffering he saw, he decided to leave the luxury of palace life and begin a quest to find the answer to the problem of pain and human suffering.

Gautama left his family and traveled the country seeking wisdom. He studied the Hindu scriptures under Brahmin priests, but became disillusioned with the teachings of Hinduism. He then devoted himself to a life of extreme asceticism in the jungle. Legend has it that he eventually learned to exist on one grain of rice a day which reduced his body to a skeleton. He soon concluded, however, that asceticism did not lead to peace and self realization but merely weakened the mind and body.

Gautama eventually turned to a life of meditation. While deep in meditation under a fig tree known as the Bohdi tree (meaning, "tree of wisdom"), Gautama experienced the highest degree of God-consciousness called Nirvana. Gautama then became known as Buddha, the "enlightened one." He believed he had found the answers to the questions of pain and suffering. His message now needed to be proclaimed to the whole world.

As he began his teaching ministry, he gained a quick audience with the people of India since many had become disillusioned with Hinduism. By the time of his death at age 80, Buddhism had become a major force in India. Three centuries later it had spread to all of Asia. Buddha never claimed to be deity but rather a "way- shower." However, seven hundred years later, followers of Buddha began to worship him as deity.(2)

The question Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, sought to answer was, Why is there pain and suffering? Also, he held to the Hindu belief of reincarnation: after death one returns to earthly life in a higher or lower form of life according to his good or bad deeds. This belief prompted a second question that needed to be answered, How does one break this rebirth cycle? The basic teachings of Buddhism, therefore, focus on what Gautama believed to be the answer to these questions. These basic tenants are found in the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-fold Path. Let us begin with the Four Noble Truths.

The First Noble Truth is that there is pain and suffering in the world. Gautama realized that pain and suffering are omnipresent in all of nature and human life. To exist means we will all encounter suffering. Birth is painful and so is death. Sickness and old age are painful. Throughout life, all living things encounter suffering.

The Second Noble Truth relates to the cause of suffering. Gautama believed the root cause of suffering is desire. It is the craving for wealth, happiness, and other forms of selfish enjoyment which cause suffering. These cravings can never be satisfied for they are rooted in ignorance.

The Third Noble Truth is the end of all suffering. Suffering will cease when a person can rid himself of all desires.

The Fourth Noble Truth is the extinguishing of all desire by following the eight-fold path. "The eight-fold path is a system of therapy designed to develop habits which will release people from the restrictions caused by ignorance and craving."(3)

Here are the eight steps in following the eight-fold path. The first is the Right Views. One must accept the four noble truths. Step two is the Right Resolve. One must renounce all desires and any thoughts like lust, bitterness, and cruelty. He must harm no living creature. Step three is the Right Speech. One must speak only truth. There can be no lying, slander, or vain talk. Step four is the Right Behavior. One must abstain from sexual immorality, stealing, and all killing.

Step five is the Right Occupation. One must work in an occupation that benefits others and harms no one. Step six is the Right Effort. One must seek to eliminate any evil qualities within and prevent any new ones from arising. One should seek to attain good and moral qualities and develop those already possessed. Seek to grow in maturity and perfection until universal love is attained. Step seven is the Right Contemplation. One must be observant, contemplative, and free of desire and sorrow. The eighth is the Right Meditation. After freeing oneself of all desires and evil, a person must concentrate his efforts in meditation so that he can overcome any sensation of pleasure or pain and enter a state of transcending consciousness and attain a state of perfection. Buddhists believe that through self effort one can attain the state of peace and eternal bliss called Nirvana.

Three important concepts in understanding Buddhism are karma, Samsara, and Nirvana.

Karma refers to the law of cause and effect in a person's life, reaping what one has sown. Buddhists believe that every person must go through a process of birth and rebirth until he reaches the state of nirvana in which he breaks this cycle. According to the law of karma, "You are what you are and do what you do, as a result of what you were and did in a previous incarnation, which in turn was the inevitable outcome of what you were and did in still earlier incarnations."(4) For a Buddhist, what one will be in the next life depends on one's actions in this present life. Buddha believed, unlike Hinduism, that a person can break the rebirth cycle no matter what class he is born into.

The second key concept to understand is the law of Samsara or Transmigration. This is one of the most perplexing and difficult concepts in Buddhism to understand. The law of Samsara holds that everything is in a birth and rebirth cycle. Buddha taught that people do not have individual souls. The existence of an individual self or ego is an illusion. There is no eternal substance of a person which goes through the rebirth cycle. What is it then that goes through the cycle if not the individual soul? What goes through the rebirth cycle is only a set of feelings, impressions, present moments, and the karma that is passed on. "In other words, as one process leads to another, ... so one's human personality in one existence is the direct cause of the type of individuality which appears in the next."(5) The new individual in the next life will not be exactly the same person, but there will be several similarities. Just how close in identity they will be, Buddha did not define.

The third key concept is Nirvana. The term means "the blowing out" of existence. Nirvana is very different from the Christian concept of heaven. Nirvana is not a place like heaven but rather a state of being. What exactly it is, Buddha never really articulated.

Nirvana is an eternal state of being. It is the state in which the law of karma, and the rebirth cycle come to an end. It is the end of suffering, a state where there are no desires and the individual consciousness comes to an end. Although to our Western minds this may sound like annihilation, Buddhists would object to such a notion. Gautama never gave an exact description of Nirvana, but his closest reply was this. "There is disciples, a condition, where there is neither earth nor water, neither air nor light, neither limitless space, nor limitless time, neither any kind of being, neither ideation nor non-ideation, neither this world nor that world. There is neither arising nor passing-away, nor dying, neither cause nor effect, neither change nor standstill."(6) Although no Buddhist really understands the condition of Nirvana, it is their eternal hope.

It may have occurred to the reader that in our discussion thus far no mention has been made of God or an eternal deity. It is clear that Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, did not claim to be divine. He claimed to be the one to point the way to Nirvana, but it was up to each individual to find his own way there.

The concept of a personal God does not fit into the Buddhist system of religion. Today there are many sects of Buddhism. Many differ in their concept of the divine and of Buddha. In general, Buddhists are pantheistic in their view of God. Many view God as an impersonal force which is made up of all living things and holds the universe together.

Here are what some of the most prominent of scholars say of the Buddhist view of God. Dr. John Noss states, "there is no sovereign Person in the heavens holding all together in unity, there is only the ultimate impersonal unity of being itself, whose peace enfolds the individual self when it ceases to call itself 'I' and dissolves in the featureless purity of Nirvana, as a drop of spray is merged in its mother sea."(7)

Here is what the late Dr. Suzuki, one of the greatest teachers of Zen Buddhism, says about his concept of God: "If God after making the world puts Himself outside it, He is no longer God. If He separates Himself from the world or wants to separate Himself, He is not God. The world is not the world when it is separated from God. God must be in the world and the world in God."(8)

Since Buddhism in general does not believe in a personal God or divine being, it does not have worship, praying, or praising of a divine being. It offers no form of redemption, forgiveness, heavenly hope, or final judgment. Buddhism is, therefore, more of a moral philosophy, an ethical way of life.

Professor Kraemer describes the Buddhist system as "a non-theistic ethical discipline, a system of self training, anthropocentric, stressing ethics and mind-culture to the exclusion of theology."(9)

Since Gautama's death, many sects have developed within Buddhism. Many of these sects differ in many fundamental ways and comparing them to one another is like comparing two separate religions. Many sects have developed their own unique concept of God. Some are pantheistic in their view of God. Others are atheistic. Still others have developed a polytheistic system of gods. Some have combined pantheism and polytheism. Several sects have elevated Gautama (or Buddha) to the level of a savior or divine being although it is clear he never claimed to be a deity. Other sects have combined some of the doctrines of God from other religions with Buddhism.

Since Buddha never emphasized his concept of the divine, Buddhism is left with some life's deepest questions unanswered, questions such as the origin of the universe and the purpose of man's existence.

It is quite clear that Christianity and Buddhism differ from one another in fundamental ways. Some sects of Buddhism have tried to synchronize the two together. However, the two are so different, they cannot both be right at the same time, nor can the two be blended together. Here is a comparison of these two religions.

Much of the Buddhist scriptures and sayings attributed to Gautama were written about four hundred years after his death. By the time they were written, Buddhism had split into many sects. What do we have then? Even the best scholars are not sure of the accuracy of the Buddhist scriptures. In Christianity, however, we have an accurate historical account written by eyewitnesses to Jesus and the events surrounding His life.

The two differ in their concept of God. For Buddhists in general, the Absolute does not play a vital role in daily living. Gautama said little about his concept of God. Buddha denied the existence of a personal God but was monistic in his view of the Absolute as an impersonal force made up of all living things. The Bible teaches of a God who rules the universe, and cares for man in a personal way. Psalm 46:10 states, "Be still and know that I am God. I will be exalted among the nations, I will be exalted among the earth."

It is clear that Buddha never claimed to be deity. Although several sects have elevated him to athe status of a god, he clearly claimed to be only the way-shower to Nirvana. Jesus, however, claimed to be God and not simply a way-shower but instead the only way to eternal life. Jesus said in John 14:6, "I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." John 1:1 also states, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God."

There is another clear distinction between these two religions. Buddhism offers neither assurance of forgiveness or eternal life. Buddhists hope to enter into the state of Nirvana, but there is no clear, objective proof or teaching on what occurs beyond the grave. Even Buddha himself was not certain what lay beyond death. He left no clear teaching on Nirvana or eternity. What he did leave are philosophical speculations. Today the body of Buddha lies in a grave in Kusinara, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. The facts of life after death still remain an unsolved mystery in Buddhism.

In Christianity we have One who amazed His audience because He taught eternal truths with authority. His authority came from the fact that He existed before creation, and He proved His claims by rising from the dead. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ is a proven fact of history and clearly demonstrates Christ's authority over sin and death. When witnessing to a Buddhist, ask him this: "Do you have tangible proof of what occurs after death?" All the Buddhist has is hope in a teaching Buddha was not sure of. As Christians, we have a certain hope in a risen Savior. There is no guessing what happens beyond the grave because Christ alone has conquered the grave.

1994 Probe Ministries

1. Walter Martin, Kingdom of the Cults (Minneapolis: Bethany House 1985), p. 261.

2. Kenneth Boa, Cults, World Religions, and the Occult (Wheaton: Victor Books, (1977) p. 35.

3. Ibid. p. 32.

4. Davis Taylor and Clark Offner, The World's Religions, Norman Anderson, ed. (Grand Rapids: InterVarsity, 1975), p. 174.

5. John Noss, Man's Religions (New York: Macmillan Company, 1968), p. 182.

6. Taylor & Offner, p. 177.

7. Noss, p. 183.

8. D. T. Suzuki, The Field of Zen (London: The Buddhist Society, 1969), p. 16.

9. Taylor & Offner, p. 177.

Boa, Kenneth. Cults, World Religions, and the Occult. Wheaton: Victor Books, 1977.

Gard, Richard. Buddhism. New York: George Braziller, 1962.

Martin, Walter. The Kingdom of the Cults. Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1985.

_____ The New Cults. Ventura: Regal Books, 1980.

McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart. Handbook of Today's Religions. San Bernadino: Here's Life, 1982.

Noss, John. Man's Religions. New York: Macmillan Company, 1968.

Parrinder, Geoffrey. World Religions From Ancient History to the Present. New York: Facts on File, 1971.

Suzuki, D.T. The Field of Zen. London: Harper and Row, 1969.

_____ The Gospel According to Zen. New York: Mentor Books, 1970.

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Buddhism - LeaderU.com

Nihilism is the belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be known or communicated. It is often associated with extreme pessimism and a radical skepticism that condemns existence. A true nihilist would believe in nothing, have no loyalties, and no purpose other than, perhaps, an impulse to destroy. While few philosophers would claim to be nihilists, nihilism is most often associated with Friedrich Nietzsche who argued that its corrosive effects would eventually destroy all moral, religious, and metaphysical convictions and precipitate the greatest crisis in human history. In the 20th century, nihilistic themes--epistemological failure, value destruction, and cosmic purposelessness--have preoccupied artists, social critics, and philosophers. Mid-century, for example, the existentialists helped popularize tenets of nihilism in their attempts to blunt its destructive potential. By the end of the century, existential despair as a response to nihilism gave way to an attitude of indifference, often associated with antifoundationalism.

"Nihilism" comes from the Latin nihil, or nothing, which means not anything, that which does not exist. It appears in the verb "annihilate," meaning to bring to nothing, to destroy completely. Early in the nineteenth century, Friedrich Jacobi used the word to negatively characterize transcendental idealism. It only became popularized, however, after its appearance in Ivan Turgenev's novel Fathers and Sons (1862) where he used "nihilism" to describe the crude scientism espoused by his character Bazarov who preaches a creed of total negation.

In Russia, nihilism became identified with a loosely organized revolutionary movement (C.1860-1917) that rejected the authority of the state, church, and family. In his early writing, anarchist leader Mikhael Bakunin (1814-1876) composed the notorious entreaty still identified with nihilism: "Let us put our trust in the eternal spirit which destroys and annihilates only because it is the unsearchable and eternally creative source of all life--the passion for destruction is also a creative passion!" (Reaction in Germany, 1842). The movement advocated a social arrangement based on rationalism and materialism as the sole source of knowledge and individual freedom as the highest goal. By rejecting man's spiritual essence in favor of a solely materialistic one, nihilists denounced God and religious authority as antithetical to freedom. The movement eventually deteriorated into an ethos of subversion, destruction, and anarchy, and by the late 1870s, a nihilist was anyone associated with clandestine political groups advocating terrorism and assassination.

The earliest philosophical positions associated with what could be characterized as a nihilistic outlook are those of the Skeptics. Because they denied the possibility of certainty, Skeptics could denounce traditional truths as unjustifiable opinions. When Demosthenes (c.371-322 BC), for example, observes that "What he wished to believe, that is what each man believes" (Olynthiac), he posits the relational nature of knowledge. Extreme skepticism, then, is linked to epistemological nihilism which denies the possibility of knowledge and truth; this form of nihilism is currently identified with postmodern antifoundationalism. Nihilism, in fact, can be understood in several different ways. Political Nihilism, as noted, is associated with the belief that the destruction of all existing political, social, and religious order is a prerequisite for any future improvement. Ethical nihilism or moral nihilism rejects the possibility of absolute moral or ethical values. Instead, good and evil are nebulous, and values addressing such are the product of nothing more than social and emotive pressures. Existential nihilism is the notion that life has no intrinsic meaning or value, and it is, no doubt, the most commonly used and understood sense of the word today.

Max Stirner's (1806-1856) attacks on systematic philosophy, his denial of absolutes, and his rejection of abstract concepts of any kind often places him among the first philosophical nihilists. For Stirner, achieving individual freedom is the only law; and the state, which necessarily imperils freedom, must be destroyed. Even beyond the oppression of the state, though, are the constraints imposed by others because their very existence is an obstacle compromising individual freedom. Thus Stirner argues that existence is an endless "war of each against all" (The Ego and its Own, trans. 1907).

Among philosophers, Friedrich Nietzsche is most often associated with nihilism. For Nietzsche, there is no objective order or structure in the world except what we give it. Penetrating the faades buttressing convictions, the nihilist discovers that all values are baseless and that reason is impotent. "Every belief, every considering something-true," Nietzsche writes, "is necessarily false because there is simply no true world" (Will to Power [notes from 1883-1888]). For him, nihilism requires a radical repudiation of all imposed values and meaning: "Nihilism is . . . not only the belief that everything deserves to perish; but one actually puts one's shoulder to the plough; one destroys" (Will to Power).

The caustic strength of nihilism is absolute, Nietzsche argues, and under its withering scrutiny "the highest values devalue themselves. The aim is lacking, and 'Why' finds no answer" (Will to Power). Inevitably, nihilism will expose all cherished beliefs and sacrosanct truths as symptoms of a defective Western mythos. This collapse of meaning, relevance, and purpose will be the most destructive force in history, constituting a total assault on reality and nothing less than the greatest crisis of humanity:

What I relate is the history of the next two centuries. I describe what is coming, what can no longer come differently: the advent of nihilism. . . . For some time now our whole European culture has been moving as toward a catastrophe, with a tortured tension that is growing from decade to decade: restlessly, violently, headlong, like a river that wants to reach the end. . . . (Will to Power)

Since Nietzsche's compelling critique, nihilistic themes--epistemological failure, value destruction, and cosmic purposelessness--have preoccupied artists, social critics, and philosophers. Convinced that Nietzsche's analysis was accurate, for example, Oswald Spengler in The Decline of the West (1926) studied several cultures to confirm that patterns of nihilism were indeed a conspicuous feature of collapsing civilizations. In each of the failed cultures he examines, Spengler noticed that centuries-old religious, artistic, and political traditions were weakened and finally toppled by the insidious workings of several distinct nihilistic postures: the Faustian nihilist "shatters the ideals"; the Apollinian nihilist "watches them crumble before his eyes"; and the Indian nihilist "withdraws from their presence into himself." Withdrawal, for instance, often identified with the negation of reality and resignation advocated by Eastern religions, is in the West associated with various versions of epicureanism and stoicism. In his study, Spengler concludes that Western civilization is already in the advanced stages of decay with all three forms of nihilism working to undermine epistemological authority and ontological grounding.

In 1927, Martin Heidegger, to cite another example, observed that nihilism in various and hidden forms was already "the normal state of man" (The Question of Being). Other philosophers' predictions about nihilism's impact have been dire. Outlining the symptoms of nihilism in the 20th century, Helmut Thielicke wrote that "Nihilism literally has only one truth to declare, namely, that ultimately Nothingness prevails and the world is meaningless" (Nihilism: Its Origin and Nature, with a Christian Answer, 1969). From the nihilist's perspective, one can conclude that life is completely amoral, a conclusion, Thielicke believes, that motivates such monstrosities as the Nazi reign of terror. Gloomy predictions of nihilism's impact are also charted in Eugene Rose's Nihilism: The Root of the Revolution of the Modern Age (1994). If nihilism proves victorious--and it's well on its way, he argues--our world will become "a cold, inhuman world" where "nothingness, incoherence, and absurdity" will triumph.

While nihilism is often discussed in terms of extreme skepticism and relativism, for most of the 20th century it has been associated with the belief that life is meaningless. Existential nihilism begins with the notion that the world is without meaning or purpose. Given this circumstance, existence itself--all action, suffering, and feeling--is ultimately senseless and empty.

In The Dark Side: Thoughts on the Futility of Life (1994), Alan Pratt demonstrates that existential nihilism, in one form or another, has been a part of the Western intellectual tradition from the beginning. The Skeptic Empedocles' observation that "the life of mortals is so mean a thing as to be virtually un-life," for instance, embodies the same kind of extreme pessimism associated with existential nihilism. In antiquity, such profound pessimism may have reached its apex with Hegesis. Because miseries vastly outnumber pleasures, happiness is impossible, the philosopher argues, and subsequently advocates suicide. Centuries later during the Renaissance, William Shakespeare eloquently summarized the existential nihilist's perspective when, in this famous passage near the end of Macbeth, he has Macbeth pour out his disgust for life:

Out, out, brief candle! Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more; it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing.

In the twentieth century, it's the atheistic existentialist movement, popularized in France in the 1940s and 50s, that is responsible for the currency of existential nihilism in the popular consciousness. Jean-Paul Sartre's (1905-1980) defining preposition for the movement, "existence precedes essence," rules out any ground or foundation for establishing an essential self or a human nature. When we abandon illusions, life is revealed as nothing; and for the existentialists, nothingness is the source of not only absolute freedom but also existential horror and emotional anguish. Nothingness reveals each individual as an isolated being "thrown" into an alien and unresponsive universe, barred forever from knowing why yet required to invent meaning. It's a situation that's nothing short of absurd. Writing from the enlightened perspective of the absurd, Albert Camus (1913-1960) observed that Sisyphus' plight, condemned to eternal, useless struggle, was a superb metaphor for human existence (The Myth of Sisyphus, 1942).

The common thread in the literature of the existentialists is coping with the emotional anguish arising from our confrontation with nothingness, and they expended great energy responding to the question of whether surviving it was possible. Their answer was a qualified "Yes," advocating a formula of passionate commitment and impassive stoicism. In retrospect, it was an anecdote tinged with desperation because in an absurd world there are absolutely no guidelines, and any course of action is problematic. Passionate commitment, be it to conquest, creation, or whatever, is itself meaningless. Enter nihilism.

Camus, like the other existentialists, was convinced that nihilism was the most vexing problem of the twentieth century. Although he argues passionately that individuals could endure its corrosive effects, his most famous works betray the extraordinary difficulty he faced building a convincing case. In The Stranger (1942), for example, Meursault has rejected the existential suppositions on which the uninitiated and weak rely. Just moments before his execution for a gratuitous murder, he discovers that life alone is reason enough for living, a raison d'tre, however, that in context seems scarcely convincing. In Caligula (1944), the mad emperor tries to escape the human predicament by dehumanizing himself with acts of senseless violence, fails, and surreptitiously arranges his own assassination. The Plague (1947) shows the futility of doing one's best in an absurd world. And in his last novel, the short and sardonic, The Fall (1956), Camus posits that everyone has bloody hands because we are all responsible for making a sorry state worse by our inane action and inaction alike. In these works and other works by the existentialists, one is often left with the impression that living authentically with the meaninglessness of life is impossible.

Camus was fully aware of the pitfalls of defining existence without meaning, and in his philosophical essay The Rebel (1951) he faces the problem of nihilism head-on. In it, he describes at length how metaphysical collapse often ends in total negation and the victory of nihilism, characterized by profound hatred, pathological destruction, and incalculable violence and death.

By the late 20th century, "nihilism" had assumed two different castes. In one form, "nihilist" is used to characterize the postmodern person, a dehumanized conformist, alienated, indifferent, and baffled, directing psychological energy into hedonistic narcissism or into a deep ressentiment that often explodes in violence. This perspective is derived from the existentialists' reflections on nihilism stripped of any hopeful expectations, leaving only the experience of sickness, decay, and disintegration.

In his study of meaninglessness, Donald Crosby writes that the source of modern nihilism paradoxically stems from a commitment to honest intellectual openness. "Once set in motion, the process of questioning could come to but one end, the erosion of conviction and certitude and collapse into despair" (The Specter of the Absurd, 1988). When sincere inquiry is extended to moral convictions and social consensus, it can prove deadly, Crosby continues, promoting forces that ultimately destroy civilizations. Michael Novak's recently revised The Experience of Nothingness (1968, 1998) tells a similar story. Both studies are responses to the existentialists' gloomy findings from earlier in the century. And both optimistically discuss ways out of the abyss by focusing of the positive implications nothingness reveals, such as liberty, freedom, and creative possibilities. Novak, for example, describes how since WWII we have been working to "climb out of nihilism" on the way to building a new civilization.

In contrast to the efforts to overcome nihilism noted above is the uniquely postmodern response associated with the current antifoundationalists. The philosophical, ethical, and intellectual crisis of nihilism that has tormented modern philosophers for over a century has given way to mild annoyance or, more interestingly, an upbeat acceptance of meaninglessness.

French philosopher Jean-Francois Lyotard characterizes postmodernism as an "incredulity toward metanarratives," those all-embracing foundations that we have relied on to make sense of the world. This extreme skepticism has undermined intellectual and moral hierarchies and made "truth" claims, transcendental or transcultural, problematic. Postmodern antifoundationalists, paradoxically grounded in relativism, dismiss knowledge as relational and "truth" as transitory, genuine only until something more palatable replaces it (reminiscent of William James' notion of "cash value"). The critic Jacques Derrida, for example, asserts that one can never be sure that what one knows corresponds with what is. Since human beings participate in only an infinitesimal part of the whole, they are unable to grasp anything with certainty, and absolutes are merely "fictional forms."

American antifoundationalist Richard Rorty makes a similar point: "Nothing grounds our practices, nothing legitimizes them, nothing shows them to be in touch with the way things are" ("From Logic to Language to Play," 1986). This epistemological cul-de-sac, Rorty concludes, leads inevitably to nihilism. "Faced with the nonhuman, the nonlinguistic, we no longer have the ability to overcome contingency and pain by appropriation and transformation, but only the ability to recognize contingency and pain" (Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, 1989). In contrast to Nietzsche's fears and the angst of the existentialists, nihilism becomes for the antifoundationalists just another aspect of our contemporary milieu, one best endured with sang-froid.

In The Banalization of Nihilism (1992) Karen Carr discusses the antifoundationalist response to nihilism. Although it still inflames a paralyzing relativism and subverts critical tools, "cheerful nihilism" carries the day, she notes, distinguished by an easy-going acceptance of meaninglessness. Such a development, Carr concludes, is alarming. If we accept that all perspectives are equally non-binding, then intellectual or moral arrogance will determine which perspective has precedence. Worse still, the banalization of nihilism creates an environment where ideas can be imposed forcibly with little resistance, raw power alone determining intellectual and moral hierarchies. It's a conclusion that dovetails nicely with Nietzsche's, who pointed out that all interpretations of the world are simply manifestations of will-to-power.

It has been over a century now since Nietzsche explored nihilism and its implications for civilization. As he predicted, nihilism's impact on the culture and values of the 20th century has been pervasive, its apocalyptic tenor spawning a mood of gloom and a good deal of anxiety, anger, and terror. Interestingly, Nietzsche himself, a radical skeptic preoccupied with language, knowledge, and truth, anticipated many of the themes of postmodernity. It's helpful to note, then, that he believed we could--at a terrible price--eventually work through nihilism. If we survived the process of destroying all interpretations of the world, we could then perhaps discover the correct course for humankind:

I praise, I do not reproach, [nihilism's] arrival. I believe it is one of the greatest crises, a moment of the deepest self-reflection of humanity. Whether man recovers from it, whether he becomes master of this crisis, is a question of his strength. It is possible. . . . (Complete Works Vol. 13)

Alan Pratt Email: pratta@db.erau.edu Embry-Riddle University U. S. A.

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Nihilism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Alan Wilson Watts, (6 januari 1915 16 november 1973) var en brittisk filosof, frfattare och talare, mest knd som en introduktr av sterlndsk filosofi fr en vsterlndsk publik. Under sin livstid uppndde han gurustatus - trots att han kraftfullt avsade sig alla sdana ansprk - och hann skriva flera bcker om sterlndskt tnkande.

Watts skrev mer n 25 bcker och artiklar om mnen som r viktiga fr den st -och vsterlndska religionen, dr The Way of Zen (1957) anses som en av de frsta storsljande bckerna om zen och buddhism. I Psychotherapy East and West (1961) freslog Watts att buddhismen skulle ses som en form av psykoterapi och inte bara en religion. Liksom Aldous Huxley fre honom, utforskade han det mnskliga medvetandet i uppsatsen "The New Alchemy" (1958), och i boken, The Joyous Cosmology (1962).

Mot slutet av sitt liv, pendlade han mellan att bo p en husbt i Sausalito och en stuga p berget Tamalpais. Hans arv har hllits vid liv av hans son, Mark Watts, och genom mnga av hans inspelade samtal och frelsningar som har hittat nytt liv p Internet.

Watts vxte upp med sina frldrar i byn Chislehurst, Kent, dr moderns familj var religis.[1] Alan lste ofta sagobcker, och fick tidigt ett intresse i fabler och romantiska berttelser om den mystiska Fjrran stern.[2] Hans mor fick ofta besk av missionrer, som efter deras resor till Kina hade med sig landskapsmlningar och broderier. Dessa konstverk betonade det deltagande frhllandet mellan mnniskan i naturen, ett tema som hade stor inverkan p Watts och stod fast genom hela hans liv.

Watts sg sig sjlv som fantasifull, egensinnig, och pratsam. Han skickades i unga r till internatskolor, dr bde de religisa och akademiska utbildningarna hade ett kristet fokus. Av denna religisa utbildning anmrkte han "Under hela min skolgng blev min religisa indoktrinering bister och grtmild ..."[3] Under en semester i tonren trffade han fransmannen Francis Croshaw, en frmgen epikur med ett starkt intresse i buddhismen, som tog med Watts p en resa genom Frankrike. Det drjde inte lnge innan Watts knde sig tvingad att vlja mellan den anglikanska kristendomen han utsatts fr, och buddhismen han hade lst om i olika bibliotek. Han valde buddhismen och skte medlemskap i Londons buddhistiska sllskap. Han blev som 16-ring organisationens sekreterare (1931), och underskte flera stilar av meditation under dessa r.

Efter gymnasiet sysselsatte sig Watts med diverse olika arbeten, men fortsatte ocks lsa mycket filosofi, historia, psykologi, psykiatri och sterlndsk visdom. Han tillbringade mycket av fritiden p den buddhistiska lodgen, vilket gav Watts ett stort antal mjligheter till personlig utveckling. r 1936, 21 r gammal, deltog han i "World Congress of Faiths" vid University of London och fick trffa D.T. Suzuki, som var en uppskattad forskare i Zen Buddhism. Dessa diskussioner och personliga mten, tillsammans med egna studier av den tillgngliga vetenskapliga litteraturen, gav Watts de grundlggande koncepten hos de viktigaste filosofierna i Indien och stasien.

r 1936 publicerades Watts frsta bok , The Spirit of Zen, som Suzuki varit en mycket stor influens till.

r 1938 lmnade han England fr att leva i Amerika. Han hade gift sig med Eleanor Everett, vars mor var involverad i en traditionell Zen buddhistisk cirkel i New York. Ngra r senare gifte sig Eleanors mor med en japansk zen-mstare, som under en tid tjnade som ett slags mentor till Watts.

Watts lmnade den formella Zen utbildning i New York d lrarnas metoder inte passade honom. Han knde ett behov av att hitta ett professionell utlopp fr sina filosofiska bjelser och skrev in sig p en anglikansk skola i Illinois, dr han studerade de kristna skrifterna, teologi och kyrkans historia. Han frskte arbeta fram en blandning av samtida kristen tillbedjan, mystisk kristendom och asiatisk filosofi. Watts fick en magisterexamen i teologi som svar p sin avhandling, som han publicerade som en populr utgva under titeln Behold the Spirit. Mnstret var tydligt, eftersom Watts inte lt dlja sin motvilja fr religisa skdningar vilka han fann var strnga, skuldtyngda eller militant missionerande - oavsett om de grundar sig i judendomen, kristendomen, hinduismen eller buddhismen.

1950 lmnar Watts ministeriet och flyttar ret drp till San Francisco, dr han anslt sig till fakulteten American Academy of Asian Studies. Hr undervisade han tillsammans med experter och professorer, men studerade ven sjlv vidare i omrdena japanska sedvnjor, konst, primitivism samt olika naturuppfattningar. Frutom undervisning, tjnade Watts under flera r som akademins administratr.

I mitten av 1950-talet lmnade han fakulteten fr en frilansande karrir. I den lokala radion brjade han nu snda radioprogram, som med tiden kom att f ett stort flje och fortsatte att sndas ven lngt efter hans dd. 1957 vid 42 rs lder, publicerade Watts en av hans mest knda bcker, The Way of Zen. Frutom livsstilen och den filosofiska bakgrunden till Zen, i Indien och Kina, infrde Watts ven ider hmtade frn den allmnna semantiken. Boken slde bra, och kom med tiden att bli en modern klassiker. Runt denna tid reste Watts runt i Europa med sin far, dr han bl.a. mtte den bermda psykiatern Carl Jung.

Nr han tervnde till USA inledde han sitt utforskande av psykedeliska droger och dess effekter, bl.a. LSD och meskalin tillsammans med olika forskargrupper. Han prvade ocks marijuana och konstaterade att det var en nyttig och intressant psykofarmaka, som gav intryck av att tiden saktar ner. Watts bcker under 60-talet visar tydligt det inflytande dessa kemiska ventyr hade p honom. Han skulle senare kommentera psykedeliskt droganvndande, "Nr du fr meddelandet, lgg p luren."[4]

Watts upptcktsfrder och egna undervisning frde honom i kontakt med mnga noterade intellektuella, konstnrer och amerikanska lrare inom miljrrelsen, men han har ven kritiserats av olika buddhister som menar att han medvetet feltolkat flera viktiga begrepp inom Zen Buddhism.

Trots att han aldrig stannade en lngre tid i ngon akademisk institution, hade han under flera r ett stipendium p Harvard University. Han frelste ocks fr mnga hgskole- och universitetsstudenter. Hans frelsningar och bcker gav honom lngtgende inflytande p den amerikanska intelligentsian under 1950-talet 1970-talet, men han ansgs ofta som en outsider i den akademiska vrlden. Watts menade att han inte var en akademisk filosof, utan snarare "en filosofisk underhllare."

Watts r knd fr sina lror inom Zen, men var ven minst lika pverkad av de gamla hinduiska skrifterna. Han talade mycket om den gudomliga verkligheten, om hur vr grundlggande okunnighet har sina rtter i den exklusiva karaktren hos sinnet och egot - hur man kommer i kontakt med omrdet fr medvetandet och andra kosmiska principer.

P det personliga planet frskte Watts upplsa sina knslor av alienation frn olika institutioner, bl.a. ktenskapet och de olika vrdena i det amerikanska samhllet. Nr vi ser p sociala frgor var han angelgen om ndvndigheten av internationell fred, och fr tolerans och frstelse mellan olika kulturer.

D han misstrodde bde den etablerade politiska vnstern och hgern, hittade Watts inspiration i den vise kinesiska Chuang-tzu , en gammal taoistisk tnkare. Han ogillade mycket i den konventionella idn om "framsteg." Han hoppades p frndring, men personligen fredrog han den isolerade landsbygdens sociala enklaver. Watts frdmde urbaniseringen av landsbygden och livsstilen som fljde.

Under en frelsningsturn framlade Watts positiva bilder fr bde naturen och mnskligheten, talade till frmn fr olika stadier av human utveckling (inklusive tonren), och prisade intelligent kreativitet, god arkitektur och mat.

Watts knde att "absolut" moral inte hade ngot att gra med det grundlggande frverkligandet av ens djupa andliga identitet. Han fresprkade en social etik snarare n den personliga. I sina skrifter blev Watts alltmer oroad ver den etik som gller fr relationerna mellan mnniskan och den naturliga miljn, samt mellan regeringar och medborgare.

Watts sade ofta att han nskade att fungera som en bro mellan det antika och det moderna, mellan st och vst, och mellan kultur och natur.

I flera av hans senare publikationer lgger Watts fram en vrldsbild, utifrn hinduismen, kinesisk filosofi, panteism, och modern vetenskap, dr han hvdar att hela universum bestr av en kosmiskt sjlvspelande kurragmma. I denna vrldsbild, hvdar Watts att vr uppfattning om oss sjlva som ett "ego i en pse av hud" r en myt.

Alan Watts var gift tre gnger och hade sju barn, fem dttrar och tv sner. Hans ldste son, Mark Watts, arbetar fr nrvarande som intendent fr faderns arbete.

Han levde sina sista r vid olika tidpunkter p en husbt i Sausalito, Kalifornien, och ibland i en avskilt stuga p berget Tamalpais. I oktober 1973 tervnde Watts frn en anstrngande EU-frelsningsturn till denna stuga. Den 16 november 1973 dog Watts i smnen av hjrtsvikt.

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Alan Watts Wikipedia

Amazon.com Review

Trying to "change" negative thoughts through cognitive gymnastics is like trying to win a war single-handedly. Why waste a life trying the impossible? In Get Out of Your Mind and Into Your Life: The New Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, advocate Dr. Steven Hayes escorts the mildly depressed, angry, and anxiety prone through a new approach to handling suffering--universal human suffering caused by language's illusions. Rather than fighting off bad thoughts and feelings with internal pep talks, Hayes beautifully explains how to embrace those pessimistic and foreboding mental voices (much like welcoming home one's cranky, play-worn children), "defuse" them with respectful attention, and commit to leading a purposeful life that includes their occasional ranting.

Intriguing exercises help readers identify their core struggles, parse these into manageable pieces, and develop effective ways to move beyond rumination. The work progresses easily, thanks to Hayes' engaging style and his grace in coaching readers. Critics of cognitive and behavioral therapies will warm to Hayes' logical explanations of language's pitfalls (even language used by other therapeutic approaches); his sometimes goofy--but surprisingly effective--exercises; well-timed etymology lessons; and his uncanny ability to predict and skillfully address reader reactions throughout the workbook. Ironically, the path to life clocks many hours in the mind; plan to dedicate an intensive month of introspection to this program. Anyone who has been accused of thinking too much, who begrudges compliments, pines for a different life, or feels trapped at a mental dead end can benefit from Hayes' superior guidance.--Liane Thomas

Dr. Steven Hayes answers a few questions about his book, and describes how his research was inspired by his own struggles with panic and anxiety.

Questions for Steven Hayes

Amazon.com: Can you give us a lay person's primer on acceptance and commitment therapy?

Steven Hayes: Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is based on a rather remarkable fact: when normal problem solving skills are applied to psychologically painful thoughts or feelings, suffering often increases. Our research program has shown this in thousands of patients, in almost every area of human suffering. Fortunately, we have discovered why this is and we have developed some ways of correcting it.

The basic research underlying ACT shows that entanglement with your own mind leads automatically to experiential avoidance: the tendency to try first to remove or change negative thoughts and feelings as a method of life enhancement. This attempted sequence makes negative thoughts and feelings more central, important, and fearsome--and often decreasing the ability to be flexible, effective, and happy.

The trick that traps us is that these unhelpful mental processes are fed by agreement OR disagreement. Your mind is like a person who has to be right about everything. If you know any people like that you know that they are excited when you agree with them but they can be even more excited and energized when you argue with them! Minds are like that. So what do you do?

ACT teaches you what to do. I will say what that is, but readers need to understand that these mere words will not be useful in and of themselves. Minds are too clever for that! That is why the book has so many exercises and why we have a free discussion group on line for people working through the book (http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/ACT_for_the_Public/). What ACT teaches is acceptance of emotions, mindful awareness of thoughts, contact with a transcendent sense of self, and action based on chosen values. This constellation of skills has shown itself in controlled research to help with an amazingly large range of problems, from anxiety to managing the challenges of physical disease, from depression, to stopping smoking.

Amazon.com: Some of this work is said to have come from your own battles with anxiety and panic. How did these ideas apply to your own struggles?

Steven Hayes: It was my own panic disorder that first put me on to the problem we have now confirmed in our research. My panic disorder began a little over 25 years ago. I watched in horror as it grew rapidly, simply by applying my normal problem solving skills to it. Anxiety felt awful and seemingly made it impossible to function, so it was obvious to me that I first needed to get rid of it before my life would improve. I tried lots of things to do that. But this very effort meant I had to constantly evaluate my level of anxiety, and fearfully check to see if it was going up or down as a result of my efforts. As a result, anxiety quickly became the central focus of my life. Anxiety itself became something to be anxious about, and meanwhile life was put on hold.

After two or three years of this I'd had enough. I began to experiment with acceptance, mindfulness, and valued action instead of detecting, disputing, and changing my insides.

I remember a moment that symbolizes the change in direction. In the middle of a panic attack, with a guttural scream like you hear in the movies, I literally shouted out loud to my own mind. "You can make me feel pain, you can make me feel anxiety," I yelled. "But you cannot make me turn away from my own experience."

It has not been a smooth path and it was several years before anxiety itself was obviously way down (getting it to go down was no longer my purpose, remember, but ironically when you stop trying to make it happen, often it does), but almost immediately life opened up again. ACT is the result of over 20 years of research, following the lead this provided.

Amazon.com: You are a language researcher and chapter two of Get Out of Your Mind and Into Your Life is called "Why Language Leads to Suffering." Can you tell us why you suggest that language is a source of human suffering?

Steven Hayes: Human language (by that I mean our symbolic abilities generally) is central to effective human cognition. It evolved to keep us from starving or being eaten--and it has done a pretty good job of that.

The key to symbolic processes is the ability to relate events in new and arbitrary ways. Our research program has shown this ability even in 14 month old babies, and we now know it comes from direct training from parents and others as part of normal language development. It is a wonderful skill. It allows us to imagine futures that have never been, and to compare situations that have never actually been experienced. That is the every essence of human verbal problem solving.

But that same process has a downside for human beings. For example, it allows us to fear things we have never experienced (e.g., death). It allows us to run from the past or compare the dull present to a fantasized future and to be unhappy as a result. And in my case it lead to the common sense but ultimately unhelpful idea that I needed to get rid of anxiety before I could live well.

We get a lot of training in how to develop and use our minds, but we get very little training in how to step out of the mental chatter when that is needed. As a result, this mental tool begins to use us. It will even claim to BE us. The overextension of human language and cognition, I believe, is at the core of the vast majority of human suffering in the developed world and human technology (the media) is only amplifying the problem by exposing us to an ever increasing stream of symbols and images. Learning how to get out of your mind and into your life when you need to do that is an essential skill in the modern world.

This manual, firmly based on cutting-edge psychological science and theory, details an innovative and rapidly growing approach that can provide you with the power to transform your very experience of life. Highly recommended for all of us. David H. Barlow, professor of psychology, research professor of psychiatry, and director of the Center for Anxiety and Related Disorders at Boston University.

This is the quintessential workbook on acceptance and commitment therapy. Written with wit, clinical wisdom, and compassionate skepticism, it succeeds in showing us that, paradoxically, there is great therapeutic value in going out of our minds. Once released from the struggle with thought, we are free to discover that a life of meaning and value is closer at hand than thought allowed. This book will serve patients, therapists, researchers, and educators looking for an elegant exposition of the nuts and bolts of this exciting approach. Zindel V. Segal, Ph.D., the Morgan Firestone Chair in Psychotherapy and professor of psychiatry and psychology at the University of Toronto and author of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression.

This book is a user-friendly tool for clinicians who may be looking for adjunct handouts for clients with a wide variety of issues. Exercises found within can help deepen, structure, or guide experiences contacted in session. As a stand-alone self-help book, it brings to light the guiding principles that make ACT such an empowering approach. I highly recommend this book to clinicians and laypeople alike. Sandra Georgescu, Psy.D., assistant professor at the Chicago School of Professional Psychology.

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Get Out of Your Mind and Into Your Life: The New ...

Humans have always imagined states of existence different from the ones that they experience in their everyday lives. In fact, the pervasive feeling of dissatisfaction with our physical constraints could be seen to be the main motivating factor for religious as well as scientific thought. From ancient mythologies to modern popular culture, humans have created myriad images of transformations of the body and mind into forms that allow them to interact with the world differently.

Why do humans search for perfection? This is by no means an easy question to answer: in fact it directs us to the numerous definitions that have been given to the question what makes us human? Dostoyevsky, after spending some time in a Siberian prison, came to the conclusion that the human is the creature that can adapt to anything (Dostoyevsky 1985). This is a significant definition because it highlights the human propensity to change in response to external circumstances with both positive consequences (it helps us to survive), and negative ones (it induces us to blindly accept injustice). The harsh situation in which this definition was created also points to a major incentive that humans have for adapting: to avoid suffering the suffering that comes from disease, isolation, poverty, oppression and prejudice.

We could therefore say that one reason that humans search for perfection, and for what the spiritually inclined would call transcendence, is because they are not only aware of suffering (arguably most animals are), but also, and more importantly, because they critically reflect on their suffering, and can recognize and reflect on the suffering of others. Deliberately changing what we are means, in many ways, letting go of what makes us suffer.

Transhumanism (or Human Plus, H+) is a social and philosophical movement that explores the uses of technology for the positive transformation of human capacities, and the social, political and ethical implications that such a transformation would carry. Its ideological uniqueness lies in an almost existentialist interpretation of science: while acknowledging the value of the scientific method based on the principles of precision, objectivity and falsifiability it foregrounds its relevance for social justice, self-determination and personal fulfilment, in other words, for improving the human condition. In transhumanism, therefore, science is owned differently than in humanism, where it was a symbol of human intellect, ingenuity and a key to the truth. The transhumanist perspective, generally, begins with the question of human experience and then takes an activist approach, looking to science to find how it can alleviate suffering and thereby improve this experience.

The writers in this Special Issue agree that the use of science to alter and ameliorate human capacities is certainly not a new phenomenon. Looking only at the last hundred years or so, for example, we find scientific breakthroughs that have radically altered human existence, even though they are now so closely assimilated into our lives that we often take them for granted. To name just a few of these changes: the contraceptive pill has liberated women from the demands of reproduction and changed the structure of the workforce, antibiotics have obliterated previously fatal diseases, and aviation technology has facilitated rapid global travel. Because of such developments we have better control over our bodies, enjoy longer life spans and can make multiple and fast relocations to different parts of the planet, radically changing our life experiences.

What these writers also recognize, however, is that recent scientific developments have accelerated the rate of change, taking it into areas that cannot be predicted. Genome research, the imaging of the brain and the creation of more and more intelligent computers are re-defining and re-adjusting the level of control we have over our bodies, our lifestyles and the environment in which we interact. This context makes it imperative that we theorize science-driven changes so as to integrate them more rationally and effectively in our policies, social regulations and individual life plans (Hughes, 2004). This Special Issue offers a flavor of transhumanist approaches to this endeavor, and a glimpse into the transhumanist vision of the future of humanity.

In considering transhumanism, we should keep in mind that it is essentially a human (even if not humanist) movement. As Patrick Hopkins points out in his essay, transhumanist ideals stem from the propensity of humans to imagine themselves to be other than what they are. This propensity hides a paradox: what humans often strive to escape is what they have in fact evolved to be. The imagination creates environments that seem desirable but that may not be suitable for humans, which means that we can long for what we are not actually any good at (such as a state of existence with no struggle and adversity). Realizing this can lead either to an attempt at changing our evolutionary heritage into a literally trans-human state (something other than human), or to equating improvement with enhancement. The latter implication means we would aim to strengthen, rather than surpass, our evolved traits, thereby making ourselves super-human what Hopkins aptly calls superprimates. Therefore, when considering technologies that can transform the human constitution, we need to decide carefully what we want to keep and what we want to discard, and what the assumptions and beliefs are behind each choice.

What are some ways in which such transhuman transformations can occur? A major theme of transhumanist discourses is the development of specific technologies aimed at assisting our quest to lead fulfilling lives. One area that has received much attention in this regard, both from transhumanist and cultural theorists, is computer technology and the electronic media. Cyberspace and the Internet, in particular, have been hailed as signalling the emergence of new conceptions of identity. There is widespread agreement that the Internet has produced new social settings and re-structured communication patterns and perceptions of space. Some have even paralleled its influence on social behavior to architectural changes and the effects of migration and urbanization (Meyerowitz 1985). At the same time, there is an increasing concern by others that such non-physical spaces encourage escapism, addictive behavior and emotional isolation. MIT media theorist Sherry Turkle represents this view when she says that for those who are lonely yet afraid of intimacy, information technology has made it possible to have the illusion of companionship without the demands of friendship (Turkle, 2004, n.p.).

Another way to explore information technologies, however, is through their potential to accurately assess an individuals cognitive and/or emotive weaknesses or difficulties, and then offer the means to overcome them. In his article, William Bainbridge describes numerous examples of personalized information technologies, where computer systems act as guides and mentors for the users. Originally developed to replace lost or damaged functions in the physically or cognitively disabled, such technologies are now being generalized to enhance normal human abilities. For example location-aware mobile computing has successfully helped cognitively impaired people to move around without getting lost. In the future, the functions of this technology could be expanded to include showing the users not only where they are, but also how close they are to locations that are suited to their disposition and values where to go and where not to go.

Also, computer games are increasingly challenging traditional narrative form through increased user participation. Now, players must follow the dictates of the system and play a game correctly, if they are to enjoy the experience. One cannot play a game such as the hugely popular Grand Theft Auto, for example, non-aggressively or oppositionally, by leading the protagonist to perform charitable acts, or by propelling the story through the actions of marginal characters (Barr, Marsen and Noble 2005). The narrative structure of the game assumes certain values with which the player must comply in order to progress the action, making it more a case of the game playing the player than vice versa. Current computer game development, however, aims to change this and increase interactivity to the point where the player can give the story different endings, and direct the narrative action from different perspectives.

Having started as visual media with limited interactivity, computer games are becoming immersive, engaging more of the users senses, and even pervasive, where the simulated environment links with a persons daily life. Virtual Reality is already being used to treat physical and emotional trauma, and Bainbridge imagines a future therapy, which he calls Displacement Therapy, where the system analyzes a users weaknesses and creates a pervasive environment where the user can safely perform actions that will enable him/her to overcome these weaknesses.

In a similar vein, Sam Kenyon examines the significance of the interface as a meeting ground between humans and machines, in a future where individuals will need to engage intimately with technology. Taking his lead from the prototypical conflict scenarios of Humans-Against-Machines and We-Become-Them, Kenyon shows how the perceived dichotomy between the machinic and the human is being bridged by implants that re-define boundaries of self, relationship with other, and perceptive ability.

Other writers look beyond the types and uses of emerging technologies to their philosophical and social implications. Comparing the transhumanist with the humanist approaches to science, Riccardo Campa raises the question of the motivations of the scientific endeavour itself. In its history and philosophical underpinnings, science emerged as a spiritual activity aimed at reaching the truth and pure knowledge. Is the transhumanist perspective changing science into an instrument for improving the human condition, and what are the epistemological implications of such a shift in attitude? In a parallel way, improving the human condition does not only entail developing technologies that overcome human limitations, but also involves satisfying existential concerns, which leads to a personally meaningful life. As Campa asks, can living forever replace knowing the sense of ones life? And is it appropriate to look to science for the answer to this question?

In this trajectory into the meaning of science, Campa explores the relations between individual existence and the world in which this existence unfolds. It could be that the world is really alien to us, but it could also be that we are just not intelligent enough to understand it and in doing so re-negotiate our existence within it. In fact, it could be that our existential dissatisfaction and anxiety stem from cognitive underdevelopment, and should be seen as obstacles to overcome rather than as defining criteria of human sensibility.

Taking his lead from C. S. Lewis essay The Abolition of Man, Gregory Jordan also visits this theme, by pondering the concepts of motivation, rationality and value, and positing them against the model of the technologically enhanced human. Jordan considers the possibility that by technologically modifying our minds we may have better access to the qualities that make us human. This access may in turn enable us to strengthen the characteristics that we consider as defining us positively. In some ways paradoxically, we may transcend human weaknesses by embracing essential human qualities such as benevolence, exuberance and tolerance, and gaining more control over them: the trans human may well be the very human.

How do changes in the human body and mind affect attitudes towards oneself and towards others, and what would their implications be for the norms and ethics of social interaction? Joseph Jackson invites us to re-consider our ideas of morality and aesthetics in the backdrop of a future world where physical appearance, sexual orientation and gender are no longer evolved or genetic traits but matters of choice and preference. In this world, preferences are morally inert, and all evaluation of individually selected enhancements should be seen as an aesthetic appreciation rather than a moral judgement.

However, such a world where an individual is empowered to choose his/her ability and appearance cries out for a socially recognized balance between ones preferences and anothers a monitor that would ensure that ones preference does not become anothers obligation, such as in a you have to become what I like scenario. In fact, such a world cries out for a developed capacity to empathize. PJ Manney stresses the importance of empathy in any community that claims to be ruled by social justice and equal rights to happiness for all its members. Manney rightly points out that we already have a technology enabling us to develop empathic capacity. This technology is the universal trait we share as a species our storytelling capacity. Storytelling, in particular in the form of sophisticated written narratives, such as novels, offers us a creative and safe space in which to hypothesize, project different outcomes to events, reflect on causal processes, and consider the effects of different emotions.

Actually, and perhaps in some ways paradoxically, by developing empathic inter-subjectivity, the ability to see the world from anothers perspective, we also become more objective and realistic. One of the greatest lessons to be learnt from empathy is that otherness is not something one has to deal with (but would rather not have to), but is actually a way through which one can conceptualize ones own potential as more-than-self. The other can offer the self many occasions to reflect on what it would be like to live in a different physical form with its own strengths and weaknesses, as well as its own wishes, desires and fears. In this context, tolerance for diversity is transformed into something else: the potential to experience, even if vicariously, different possibilities of life. This potential in turn enables us to choose more appropriately our own social performances, and, in a transhuman future, perhaps even our forms of embodiment.

What are the implications of all these transhumanist ideas and possibilities for us humans as we exist now? Taking a practical perspective, George Dvorsky describes his daily habits as reflective of his transhumanist principles. From a description of what he eats every day to how he uses technology, Dvorksy gives an example of life choices informed by expectations of the future what a human may do now in hope of leading a transhuman life in the future. In a parallel way, a possible perspective of the transhuman being itself is imaginatively narrated by Nick Bostrom, who takes a future perfect angle on existence, addressing the reader from a position of completion and arrival, set in a post-human future, rather than from a position of departure and uncertainty.

As Cory Doctorow points out in his essay, transhumanist ideas are as much about the present, and the human, as they are about the future, and the trans-human. More than merely describing an evolutionary inevitability, they mirror actual human desires and fears, and show us what we already possess, and what we would like to possess in our quest for perfection and the abolition of suffering. In doing this, transhumanist thought does more than just promote technology as a catalyst for human improvement. The insights it offers into our potential can absolve us from the primitive and paralyzing guilt that plagues our search for happiness, pleasure and beauty, encouraging us instead to seek freely and purposely sights more majestically beautiful, music more deeply soul-stirring, sex more exquisitely erotic, mystical epiphanies more awe inspiring, and love more profoundly intense (Pearce 2007, n.p.)

Barr, P., Marsen, S. and Noble, J. 2005. Oppositional Play: Gathering negative

evidence for computer game values. Proceedings of the Second Australasian

Conference on Interactive Entertainment, Sydney, Australia, pp. 3-10. http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1109181

Dostoyevsky, F. 1985 (original 1862). The House of the Dead. Translated by David McDuff. London: Penguin

Hughes, J. 2004. Citizen Cyborg: Why democratic societies must respond to the redesigned human of the future. New York: Westview Press.

Meyerowitz, J. 1985. No Sense of Place: The impact of electronic media on social behavior. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Pearce, D. 2007. The Hedonistic Imperative (Introduction). http://www.hedweb.com/hedethic/hedonist.htm

Turkle, S. 2004. How Computers Change the Way We Think. The Chronicle of Higher Education. January 30, Volume 50, Issue 21, Page B26. http://chronicle.com/weekly/v50/i21/21b02601.htm

The rest is here:
Becoming More Than Human: Technology and the Post-Human ...

A Day Retreat with Zen Teacher Pat George

Saturday, January 9, 2016

When:Saturday, November 14, 10am 12pm

Where:Radnor Friends Meeting, 620 Conestoga Rd, Villanova, PA, United States (map)

Description:

Sutra:MN 14 PTS: M i 91 Cula-dukkhakkhandha Sutta: The Lesser Mass of Stress &MN 36 PTS: M i 237 Maha-Saccaka Sutta: The Longer Discourse to Saccaka

Led byWilliam Stauffer

Click to read more

When: 1 pm to 6 pm, Saturday, November 14, 2015. Please come by 12:45. NOTE:This Retreat is at a different time than the usual retreat times

Where: Plymouth Meeting Friends, 2150 Butler Pike, Click to read more

When:Saturday, October 10, 10am 12pm

Where:Radnor Friends Meeting, 620 Conestoga Rd, Villanova, PA, United States (map)

Description:Sutra: MN118, npnasati Sutta (Mindfulness of Breathing)

Led byJulianna Lipschutz

Note:Prior to the Sutra Study, there will be sitting meditation from 9:30AM to 9:50AM. Please bring your own hard Click to read more

When:Saturday, September 19th,10AM to 4PM

Where:Plymouth Meeting Friends, 2150 Butler Pike, Plymouth Meeting, PA

No pre-registration necessary, please arrive around 9:30AM for set up.

This retreat will incorporate sequences of mindful Yoga practices in order to help our Buddhist practice of meditation or Click to read more

When: Sunday, September 13, 2015, 7:30PM 9PM

Where: Plymouth Meeting Friends, 2150 Butler Pike, Plymouth Meeting, PA

Description: How Can We Understand Self, No-Self, and Non-Self in Buddhism? Led by Richard McKinney

Click here to learn more about our Lecture and Discussion series

When:Saturday, September 12, 10am 12pm

Where:Radnor Friends Meeting, 620 Conestoga Rd, Villanova, PA, United States (map)

Description: Sutra: MN86, Angulimala Sutta (To Angulimala, a murderer)

Led byZachary Brown

Note:Prior to the Sutra Study, there will be sitting meditation from 9:30AM to 9:50AM. Please bring Click to read more

Follow this link:
Philadelphia Buddhist Association

If you look at the different aspects of your life about whats really important to you, what do you see? Are you as happy or as satisfied as can be with all those areas, or do you feel like youre stuck inone or more of them andwant to be in a better place?

Are there difficult decisions and changes you need to make in your family life, relationships, career, or spiritual path? Do you need to increase your confidence or motivation to do things? Do you desire a more peaceful, stress-free andpositive life?

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Below are some of the most common areas in which I support my clients as a personal life coach:

If there are one or more areas in your life that would make you much happier and more peaceful if you improved it, and you are ready to do something about it then hiring an effective life coach will help you.

Please click to continue: find out more about the coaching process | book a preliminary coaching session.

More:
Personal Coaching to Change Your Life

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I am not certified in any kind of diet field or exercise field!!!!! Please take this as pure opinion and what works for me.

Sorry this is not a funny video. But I get asked this constantly and my fingers are tired from typing it.

Here is a link to my EPIC blender, I actually have an older version of this that I have had for 5 years and never had any problems with. Comes with 2 cups and blades so you can make smoothies for you and your fuck buddy at the same time, and also comes with the giant dispensing thing that is spectacular for making frozen margaritas haha. http://www.google.com/products/catalo...

And here is the link to my vegan cookbook, there are so many out there so maybe you can find one that works better for you (ie there are books for people that need to cook meals for families and others that eat meat when you don't, some are more fancy and have more ingredients, I just like this one because it's very practical, easy recipes, and tells you all of the nutrition information in the meals you are cooking)

http://www.amazon.com/Everything-Vega...

Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/pages/Jenna-M...

Twitter: https://twitter.com/#!/Jenna_Marbles @Jenna_Marbles

@CharlesMarbles

@Kermit_thedog

Merchandise (dog toys, shirts and more): http://jennamarblesblog.com/shop

Blog: http://www.jennamarblesblog.com/

Tumblr: http://jennamarbles.tumblr.com/

Instagram JennaMarbles

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Questions About My Diet And Exercise - YouTube

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I love the genuineness and raw simplicity of davidjis powerful message. His style is inclusive and inviting rather than exclusive and elitist. Bottom line: I want to have an outlook on life just like davidji.

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davidji is a master teacher who illuminates a better way to be human by bringing bleeding-edge research to life and showing practical ways to change your mind-set about stress.

Shawn Achor, happiness researcher and New York Times best-selling author of The Happiness Advantage

davidjis fundamentally human approach gets at a simple truth: if we are happier, healthier, and more aware of our inner motivations, we will perform better in our jobs, be better parents or spouses, and be more present for our clients. This is true because, thanks to davidjis guidance, we have a better understanding of what peace of mind is and how to achieve it.

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davidji is a wonderful teacher who brings joy and awareness to the world.

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davidji has written a powerful, practical, and inspiring manual to help us understand and radically transform our relationship to stress. Written with a brilliant blend of clarity, compassion, and wisdom, it enlightens the mind and uplifts the heart.I highlyrecommenddestressifyingas essential reading for anyone who wants to live a more peaceful and joyful life!

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davidji is a divine teacher and a soulful leader. In his book destressifying, he offers a practical guide to managing stress with grace. In a world where stress has become an epidemic, this book is a must-read. davidjis wisdom and tools will clear the blocks to the presence of peace we all long for.

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If Id read this book as a beginning meditator, Id have avoided a lot of false starts, perceptual errors, and backaches.Reading it now, many years into my own practice, I still found jewels that enriched and brightened my meditation and my life.davidji is a gentle, kind, patient, clever teacher whose words can help lighten your stress and facilitate your quest for greater wisdom.

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davidji is an incomparable teacher. The depth and breadth of his wisdom is unsurpassed. With davidji, the Blue Courage team of police officerswho teachthousands of cops annuallyhave laughed, cried, learned, grown, and transformed. davidji has the solutions that protect those who protect us. Through davidji, hearts are healed, souls are inspired, spirits are ignited, and minds are expanded. Oh yesand lives are saved! In a modern world desperately in need of greater awareness and resilience, destressifyingis your must-read! Thank you, davidji!

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davidjiis an internationally recognized stress-management expert, meditation master, corporate-wellness trainer, public speaker, and author. After a 20-year career in finance, business, and mergers and acquisitions, davidji began a new journey to wholeness by apprenticing under Deepak Chopra for ten years as the Chopra Center COO and lead educator, and became the first dean of Chopra Center University. He now travels the world helping individuals awaken to the best version of themselves; his real-world techniques and guided meditations have been used by hundreds of thousands around the globe to destressify and take their lives to the next level. davidji has a deep passion for working with those in high-stress, high-pressure situations. Through the Blue Courage Awareness Training curriculum, his teachings are practiced in some of the largest precincts and police academies in the U.S. Each week, he hostsLIVE from the SweetSpot, now in its fifth yearon HayHouseRadio.com. Join the davidji SweetSpot Community at http://www.davidji.com

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destressifying: The Real-World Guide to Personal ...

Tetra Images - Yuri Arcurs/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images

Self-awareness is important in every area of life, but it's essential when dealing with relationships. If you're aware of the things you say and do, you'll be able to recognize when your actions bother or anger someone else.It sounds straightforward, but it takes some adults years before they understand what this concept means, and how to apply it to their life.

What Does It Mean to Be Self-Aware?

Self-awareness means that you have a solid understanding about who you are and how you relate to the world. This means being mentally and emotionally present in situations, and understanding how your actions affect people. It also means that you're clued into to what you really enjoy and dislike.

This concept is not as simple in practice, however.

Many things in life can change us, for good or bad, and these changes cloud self-awareness. Some things that can wreak havoc on our awareness are:

Do You Have a Problem With Self-Awareness?

One sure way to determine if you've got an issue with self-awareness is that you feel everyone else is always to blame for things. For example:

In each of these examples, what's missing is self-reflection. If these sound a little like your own life, do some soul searching to determine if you could be more aware. Most us can be, so you're not alone. What's more, self-awareness is a continual process. The more you do it, the better you will be at determining how the way you think and act affects your own happiness.

Self-Awareness and Conflict

Another common trait of those unaware is an inability to give and receive apologies. When someone apologizes, they either may not accept it at all, or believe that the person needs to keep apologizing. They don't understand what it means to truly accept someone's apology and move on, and as a result they continually harm the relationship by rehashing old arguments.

By contrast, they rarely apologize when they should, and if they do it's a non-apology instead of a genuine acknowledgement for how they acted. Their focus stays on what someone else did instead of their own contribution to the argument. (Here's more about different types of apologizes.)

Being More Self-Aware

The first step to self-awareness is to look at past issues you've had with people and be honest with yourself. Sometimes it's so hard to think that we might have messed up that we don't allow ourselves to reflect on the actions we took to help prolong or cause an argument.

Admitting you have a part in how people treat you is a hard concept to embrace at first. The following thoughts can act as a warning sign for better self-awareness.

When you think these thoughts, turn the focus back to yourself and see if there was something you did to push someone's buttons, start an argument, or prolong a disagreement. If someone blows up at you and you feel it's "out of the blue," take a moment and see if perhaps you were pushing them toward anger or resentment for awhile. Sometimes subtle nagging or condescension builds, and a friend who put up with your negative qualities before will suddenly not stand for it any longer. This is a good time to reflect on your actions.

When you do have an argument, listen closely to what your friend is telling you. It can be really hard to hear negative things about our actions, but if a friend is hurt you might have done something without even realizing it. Ask your friend to share their frustration with you so you can learn. If your friend is done with you, then go back over the attitudes you've had toward them (that you thought were hidden) and see if perhaps you weren't as good a friend as you should have been.

Self-awareness is important in our relationships, but you also have to balance it. The act of self-reflection should be to determine how your actions affect your friendships, not to act as a martyr or take the blame for everything. Understanding your role and acknowledging the things you do wrong will help you keep a harmonious social life.

Stay up to date on the latest Friendship news and learn more about meeting new people, forming friendships, and keeping great pals in your life. Sign up for our free Friendship newslettertoday!

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How to Be More Self-Aware - Understanding Yourself