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The American Historical Review

Description: The American Historical Review (AHR) is the official publication of the American Historical Association (AHA). The AHA was founded in 1884 and chartered by Congress in 1889 to serve the interests of the entire discipline of history. Aligning with the AHAs mission, the AHR has been the journal of record for the historical profession in the United States since 1895the only journal that brings together scholarship from every major field of historical study. The AHR is unparalleled in its efforts to choose articles that are new in content and interpretation and that make a contribution to historical knowledge. The journal also publishes approximately one thousand book reviews per year, surveying and reporting the most important contemporary historical scholarship in the discipline.

Coverage: 1895-2012 (Vol. 1, No. 1 - Vol. 117, No. 2)

The "moving wall" represents the time period between the last issue available in JSTOR and the most recently published issue of a journal. Moving walls are generally represented in years. In rare instances, a publisher has elected to have a "zero" moving wall, so their current issues are available in JSTOR shortly after publication. Note: In calculating the moving wall, the current year is not counted. For example, if the current year is 2008 and a journal has a 5 year moving wall, articles from the year 2002 are available.

ISSN: 00028762

EISSN: 19375239

Subjects: History, American Studies, History, Area Studies

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Political Experience and Enlightenment Ideas in Eighteenth ...

Rajneesh Chandra Mohan (Hindi: ) (Kuchwada, 11 december 1931 Poona, 19 januari 1990), gedurende de jaren 70 van de twintigste eeuw beter bekend als Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh en later als Osho, was een goeroe en de stichter en inspirator van een spirituele beweging (de Bhagwanbeweging) in India, de VS, Australi en Europa. In juni 1981 vertrok hij naar Amerika, maar werd na vier jaar gedwongen terug te keren naar India omdat hij problemen had met de justitie in de VS, meer bepaald het immigratierecht.

Hij is onder meer bekend geworden als bezitter van 93 Rolls Royces. De eretitel Bhagwan stamt uit het Sanskriet en is voorbehouden aan mensen die tot zogenoemde zelf-realisatie zijn gekomen. Vaak wordt het vertaald met Heer. In Maharashtra is het een courante voornaam. Sri betekent in het Sanskriet verhoogde of verlichte.

In de zen-traditie is Osh een benaming voor een spirituele meester.

Rajneesh Chandra Mohan werd op 11 december 1931 geboren in Kuchwada, een klein dorp in de staat Madhya Pradesh in India. Zijn ouders waren aanhangers van het janisme. Bij zijn geboorte voorspelde een astroloog dat hij volgens zijn horoscoop rond zijn 7e, 14e en 21e levensjaar zou kunnen sterven. Tot zijn zevende jaar leefde hij bij zijn grootouders van moeders kant. Na de dood van zijn grootvader op zijn zevende jaar ging hij samen met zijn grootmoeder terug naar zijn ouders in Gadarwara. Zijn oma gaf hem steeds alle ruimte en respect, en verwachtte van andere mensen dezelfde opstelling. Zo groeide Rajneesh op, ongetemd en zorgeloos, pas na zijn zevende ging hij naar school. Dit laatste was mede bepalend voor zijn opvattingen over het opvoeden van kinderen. Zowel rond zijn zevende (de dood van zijn grootvader van moeders kant) als rond zijn veertiende (hij informeerde toen de leraar dat hij een week weg zou blijven van school om in een tempel te mediteren en zo 'de dood uit te nodigen') had hij, volgens eigen zeggen, bijzondere ervaringen. Zo zou in de tempel een slang over hem heengekropen zijn zonder dat die hem iets deed.

Rajneesh beweerde dat hij op 21 maart 1953, op 21-jarige leeftijd, spiritueel verlicht werd, al mediterend onder een maulsari [1] in een park in Jabalpur, waar hij in die tijd filosofie studeerde.

Vanaf 1957 doceerde hij filosofie aan de Sanskrit Universiteit in Jabalpur. Zijn controversile inzichten over religie, politiek en seks leidden tot zijn ontslag in 1966. Daarna reisde hij rond, toespraken houdend tot wie luisteren wilde.

In 1974 vertrok hij vanuit Bombay, waar hij enige jaren leefde, op de 21e verjaardag van zijn verlichtingservaring (21 maart) naar Poona en zo begon de periode die bij volgelingen bekend staat als Poona I, de periode voor het avontuur in Amerika. Het was in deze periode dat duizenden mensen uit vele westerse landen naar Poona reisden om enige tijd in de ashram door te brengen. Vooral vanaf 1979 werd het zo druk in de ashram dat ruimte buiten de ashram gehuurd moest worden om de vele therapiegroepen te kunnen blijven aanbieden. In maart 1981 hield de leraar op met spreken om begin juni 1981 naar Amerika te vertrekken.

In 1981 ging Rajneesh naar de Verenigde Staten om betere medische verzorging te krijgen. Rajneesh leed aan diabetes en ernstige rugproblemen. Ook zou hij willen ontkomen aan een aanklacht wegens belastingontduiking in India.

Op zijn verzoek kochten zijn volgelingen voor 6 miljoen Amerikaanse dollar een ranch in Wasco County (Oregon). Deze droeg voordien de naam "The Big Muddy", maar werd later omgedoopt tot Rajneeshpuram. Hier verbleven zij een aantal jaren. Net als in Poona gaf Bhagwan ook hier namen aan verschillende delen van de stad (toen aan de huizen in ashram, bijvoorbeeld Jesushuis en Krishnahuis). Zo werd het door de volgelingen zelf gecreerde meer genoemd naar de 20e-eeuwse spirituele leraar en Bhagwans landgenoot Jiddu Krishnamurti, het 'Krishnamurti-lake'. Krishnamurti zou ooit in een vraaggesprek met de Nederlandse psychiater Jan Foudraine, in die tijd een leerling van Rajneesh, gezegd hebben dat 'The gentleman in Poona' slechts een ladder was (voor zijn volgelingen). Hijzelf zou een lift zijn geweest. Later reageerde Rajneesh hier weer op in een lezing door te melden dat (het zijn van) een ladder veel praktischer is, omdat die overal mee naar toe kan worden genomen, terwijl een lift vast zit in een gebouw.

Als gevolg van het bestemmingsplan ontstonden er moeilijkheden met de inwoners van Wasco County. Deze escaleerden zover, dat de aanhangers van Rajneesh (ook wel Rajneeshees genoemd) met zowat de hele staat overhoop lagen. De autocratische stijl van leidinggeven door Ma Anand Sheela zou daar ook aan hebben bijgedragen. Uitlatingen van deze woordvoerster voerden de spanning alleen maar verder op.

Rajneesh legde een belofte af dat hij niet meer zou spreken. In deze periode deden zijn volgelingen hem in totaal driennegentig Rolls-Royces cadeau. Dit luxueuze bezit werd door buitenstaanders vaak aangegrepen om de goeroe te bekritiseren. Rajneesh verklaarde dat de Rolls symbool stond voor zijn pleidooi voor zowel uiterlijke als innerlijke rijkdom. Tegelijk wilde hij met dit buitensporige aantal op een provocerende manier de spot drijven met de Amerikaanse obsessie voor (grote) auto's. "Zolang mensen vragen blijven stellen over Rolls Royces en geen belangstelling tonen voor meditatie, voor het leven dat we hier leiden (..), zal ik doorgaan met ze uit te dagen."[2]

De Rajneeshees wierven dakloze mensen van overal uit de Verenigde Staten om in Rajneeshpuram te gaan wonen. Dit werd gezien als een poging om via de stembus de macht in Wasco County over te nemen. Ook werden zij in verband gebracht met een aantal salmonella-vergiftigingen in The Dalles in Oregon. Kort daarna werd Sheela uit haar functie ontheven en vertrok zij naar West-Duitsland.

In 1985 werd Rajneesh in North Carolina gearresteerd op beschuldiging de Verenigde Staten te willen ontvluchten nadat een federale jury in Portland (Oregon) op 23 oktober 1985 Rajneesh, Sheela, en zes andere volgelingen in staat van beschuldiging had gesteld ter zake van overtreding van de immigratiewet. Twee dagen later kwam een grand jury in Wasco County bovendien met aanklachten tegen Sheela en twee anderen wegens poging tot moord op Swami Devaraj, Bhagwans lijfarts.

Op advies van zijn advocaten verzette Rajneesh zich niet tegen de aanklacht (de zogenaamde 'Alford plea') en hij kreeg een voorwaardelijke straf op voorwaarde dat hij de VS zou verlaten. Hij overleed op 19 januari 1990, ruim vier jaar na zijn arrestatie. Hij werd 58 jaar oud. Zijn as wordt bewaard in een meditatiehal in zijn ashram in Poona, India.

Volgens Bhagwan is ieder menselijk wezen een potentile Boeddha met de mogelijkheid om verlichting te bereiken. Volgens hem is iedereen in staat om onvoorwaardelijke liefde te ervaren en het leven te beleven in plaats van te overleven. "Voor mij moet de mens niets afwijzen of onderdrukken wat hem gegeven is. Laat je innerlijke bloei op de eerste plaats komen."

In zijn boeken geeft hij aan dat het ego de meeste mensen in de weg zit. Het ego is volgens Bhagwan de sociale conditionering en de beperkingen die iemand zichzelf oplegt en die in het verleden zijn verzameld. De mens schept daardoor behoeften die in conflict zijn met zijn werkelijke aard.

Bhagwan ziet het denken als een overlevingsmechanisme, dat steeds terugkerende patronen schept die in het verleden succesvol waren. Hierdoor leven veel mensen in het verleden, en vergeten ze in het moment te leven.

In plaats van het onderdrukken van behoeften, zo vond hij, zouden mensen onvoorwaardelijk zichzelf moeten vertrouwen en accepteren. "Ik aanvaard de mens zoals hij is - totaal, zonder iets af te wijzen. (..) De mens is een zaadje dat kan uitgroeien tot een geweldige boom, dat tot goddelijkheid kan uitgroeien."[3]

Voormalig Osho volgeling en onderzoeker van grensverschijnselen Robert Zwemmer, bekend met Het Urantia Boek, meent dat het geen toeval is dat Osho 1937 jaar na de geboorte van Jezus (in augustus BC 7, volgens Het Urantia Boek) verscheen, en dat Melchizedek volgens dit boek 1973 jaar voor de geboorte van Jezus verscheen. Het spel met getallen als drie, zeven - en hun veelvouden en combinaties - wordt in Het Urantia Boek (deel II, verhandeling 36) letterlijk aangehaald als 'merkteken' van de Bovenwereld.

Bhagwans toespraken en lezingen zijn verzameld in meer dan 600 boeken. Hieronder volgt een korte lijst:

Boeken over uitspraken van Jezus:

Boeken over Tao:

Boeken over Boeddha:

Boeken over zen:

Boeken over de Baulmystici:

Boeken over het soefisme:

Boeken over het chassidisme:

Boeken over de Akshya Oepanishad:

Boeken over de Oepanishads:

Boeken genspireerd door Herakleitos:

Boeken genspireerd door Kabir:

Boeken over Tantra:

Boeken over Yoga:

Toespraken gebaseerd op vragen:

De Darshandagboeken of ook wel De Darshaninterviews:

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Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh - Wikipedia

1st Judicial District Select Counties in the 1st District Family Law Advice by Phone Low-income people who have a court case in Carver, Dakota or Scott County can get a free 20-minute legal advice consult on family law matters from theVolunteer Lawyers Network. Toschedule an appointment, please call the VLN Intake Line at(612) 752-6677from 9:00 a.m. - 1:00 p.m. Monday, Wednesday and Thursday. Dakota County The Dakota County Free Legal Clinics Program is offered in partnership through the Dakota County Law Library, Dakota County District Court Administration, and Legal Assistance of Dakota County. Free legal advice clinics are available on family law and consumer law topics such as bankruptcy, debt collection, garnishment, mortgages, foreclosures, landlord-tenant, and Conciliation Court. Volunteer attorneys provide 30-minute consults at the clinics, which are offered at various times and locations. To use the clinics, youmustlive in Dakota County andschedule an appointmentby calling(952) 431-3200. Learn more

Dakota County Law Library also partners with Volunteer Lawyers Network (VLN) for a criminal expungement clinic the fourth Tuesday of each month starting at 1:30 pm. No appointment is necessary for the expungement clinic. Please contact the Dakota County Law Library at 651-438-8080 for more information.

Family Law Advice by Phone Low-income people who have a court case inRamsey County District Courtcan get a free 20-minute legal advice consult on family law matters from theVolunteer Lawyers Network. Toschedule an appointment, please call the VLN Intake Line at(612) 752-6677from 9:00 a.m. - 1:00 p.m. Monday, Wednesday and Thursday.

Criminal Expungement Clinic A free clinic that describes the criminal expungement process and provides help completing the forms for anyone filing an expungement for a criminal case in Ramsey County. The clinic is on the second and fourth Thursday of each month (except holidays) at 1:00 p.m. in theRamsey County Law Libraryon the 18th floor of theRamsey County courthouse.

Domestic Abuse & Harassment Office (Ramsey County) Victims can access resources and get help with the process of getting a courtOrder for Protection.

Housing & Conciliation Court Self-Help Center (brochure) Free legal advice consults with volunteer attorneys are available on afirst-come, first-servedbasis on Tuesdays from 1:00 p.m. - 4:00 p.m. Sign-up starts at 12:00 noon. The advice clinic is located in theRamsey County Law Libraryon the 18th floor of theRamsey County courthouse.

Domestic Abuse Service Center (Hennepin County) Victims can access resources and get help with the process of getting a courtOrder for Protection.

Family Law Advice by Phone Low-income people who have a court case in Hennepin County can get a free 20-minute legal advice consult on family law matters from the Volunteer Lawyers Network. Toschedule an appointment, please call the VLN Intake Line at(612) 752-6677from 9:00 a.m. - 1:00 p.m. Monday, Wednesday and Thursday.

TheSt. Cloud Public Libraryhosts a free legal advice clinic with a volunteer attorney fromCentral Minnesota Legal Serviceswho offers advice on family law, probate, and real property matters the fourth Tuesday of the month (except legal holidays), from 12:00 p.m. - 1:00 p.m. Please call(320) 257-4872topre-registerand for more details.

The Long Prairie Public Library hosts a free legal advice clinic for low-income families and individuals with an attorney from Central Minnesota Legal Services who offers advice on family law, child support, social security law, housing and expungement the 4th Monday of the month from 2-4 p.m. Please call 320-257-4855 to pre-register and for more details.

Divorce Law Clinic Legal Aid Society of Northeastern Minnesotais offering a legal education clinic on the fourth Tuesday of each month at 12:00 noon in theCrow Wing County Law Library. These 1-hour classes include information on dealing with custody and property issues as well as court forms and procedures.Legal advice is not providedon individual cases.Learn more

Legal Advice Clinic Volunteer Attorney Programoffers general legal advice and help completing court forms the second Wednesday of each month at 10:30 a.m. in theCrow Wing County courthouse. This is afirst-come, first-servedprogram. No appointments are scheduled.NOTE:Residents from any Minnesota county may use this legal advice clinic.

Family Law Clinic(flyer):One Thursday each month (seeClinic Calendar), people can meet with an attorney on divorce, custody, child support, Orders for Protection, and other family law matters. Please call(763) 422-7487 for an appointment. The law library is on the 1st floor of theAnoka County courthouse.

Housing Law Clinic:On certain Mondays each month (see Clinic Calendar), people can meet with an attorney on eviction, lock-outs, lease violations, and other housing law matters. This is awalk-in servicelocated in theAnoka County Courthouse.

Central Minnesota Legal Servicesoffers a free legal advice clinic with a volunteer attorney on family law, probate, and real property matters the fourth Tuesday of the month (except legal holidays), from 12:00 noon - 1:00 p.m. at theSt. Cloud Public Library. Call(320) 257-4872 to pre-registerand for more details.

Central Minnesota Legal Servicesoffers afree Criminal Expungement Cliniconce a month at theAnoka County Public Library - Rum River location.No pre-registrationis necessary. Call(612) 332-8151for more information.

Washington County Legal Advice Clinic Volunteer attorneys from the Washington County Bar Association offer free 30-minute consults at the Washington County Law Library on civil, criminal and family law issues. To use this clinic, youmustlive in or have a court case in Washington County, and your incomemustbe at or below 300% of theFederal Poverty Guidelines. Pleasecall (651) 430-6330 for an appointment.You may also email lawlibrary@co.washington.mn.usquestions about the advice clinic or law library services. CLINIC HOURS: Civil law: every other Monday, 1:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m. Fill out theclinic intake form. Family law: Tuesday, 1:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m. Fill out theclinic intake form. Criminal law: Wednesday, 10:00 a.m. 12:00 p.m.

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Minnesota Judicial Branch - Self Help Centers

Plume Creative / DigitalVision / Getty Images

By Kendra Cherry

Updated December 24, 2015.

Personality development has been a major topic of interest for some of the most prominent thinkers in psychology. Our personalities make us unique, but how does personality develop? How exactly do we become who we are today? What factors play the most important role in the formation of personality? Can personality ever change?

To answer this question, many prominent theorists developed theories to describe various steps and stages that occur on the road of personality development.

The following theories focus on various aspects of personality development, including cognitive, social and moral development.

Jean Piagets theory of cognitive development remains one of the most frequently cited in psychology, despite being subject to considerable criticism. While many aspects of his theory have not stood the test of time, the central idea remains important today: children think differently than adults.

According to Piaget, children progress through a series of four stages that are marked by distinctive changes in how they think. Learn more about Piagets groundbreaking theory and the important contributions it made to our understanding of personality development.

In addition to being one of the best-known thinkers in the area of personality development, Sigmund Freud remains one of the most controversial. In his well-known stage theory of psychosexual development, Freud suggested that personality develops in stages that are related to specific erogenous zones. Failure to complete these stages, he suggested, would lead to personality problems in adulthood.

Freud not only theorized about how personality developed over the course of childhood, but he also developed a framework for how overall personality is structured. According to Freud, the basic driving force of personality and behavior is known as the libido. This libidinal energy fuels the three components that make up personality: the id, the ego and the superego.

The id is the aspect of personality present at birth. It is the most primal part of personality and drives people to fulfill their most basic needs and urges. The ego is the aspect of personality charged with controlling the urges of the id and forcing it to behave in realistic ways.

The superego is the final aspect of personality to develop and contains all of the ideals, morals and value imbued by our parents and culture. This part of personality attempts to make the ego behave according to these ideals. The ego must then moderate between the primal needs of the id, the idealistic standards of the superego and reality.

Freud's concept of the id, ego and superego has gained prominence in popular culture, despite a lack of support and considerable skepticism from many researchers. According to Freud, it is the three elements of personality that work together to create complex human behaviors.

Erik Eriksons eight-stage theory of human development is one of the best-known theories in psychology. While the theory builds on Freuds stages of psychosexual development, Erikson chose to focus on how social relationships impact personality development. The theory also extends beyond childhood to look at development across the entire lifespan.

At each stage of psychosocial development, people face a crisis in which a task must be mastered. Those who successfully complete each stage emerge with a sense of mastery and well-being. Those who do not resolve the crisis at each stage may struggle with those skills for the remainder of their lives.

Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory of personality development that focused on the growth of moral thought. Building on a two-stage process proposed by Piaget, Kohlberg expanded the theory to include six different stages. While the theory has been criticized for a number of different reasons, including the possibility that it does not accommodate different genders and cultures equally, Kohlbergs theory remains important in our understanding of how personality develops.

These theories are just a beginning point in understanding how personality develops. Continue your reading in the resources below to learn more:

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Theories of Personality Development - About.com Health

Here you will find forms that are used statewide in Washington Courts. This is not a complete list of all forms. Your Court may have forms you must file in a case. Please check with your local Court to confirm. Additionally, you may want to check the Local Court Rules for forms and for more information. Ending the Marriage Divorce (Dissolution), Legal Separation, Convert Legal Separation to Dissolution, Declaration Concerning Validity of Marriage, Default, Temporary Order to Pay Maintenance, Temporary Restraining Order, Contempt of Court

Third-Party Custody Nonparental Custody

Unmarried Parents Establishing Residential Schedule/Child Support - with Paternity Acknowledgment, Establishing Parentage, Temporary Restraining Order, Contempt of Court, Request Parenting Plan within 2 Years of Parentage Judgment

Parenting Plan/Residential Schedule Temporary Order - Child Visitation (dissolution), Temporary Order - Child Custody, Modification of parenting plan/residential schedule, Guardian Ad Litem

Child Support Temporary Order - Child Support (Dissolution), Temporary Order - Child Support (unmarried), Child Support Modification, Adjustment of Child Support, Child Support Worksheets & WSCSS Schedule, Uniform Interstate Family Support Act (UIFSA), WA State Self-Support Reserve

Child Relocation Notice of Intended Relocation, Objection to Intended Relocation (Objecting party), Temporary Order (Objecting Party), Temporary Order (Relocating Party) Entering agreed or unopposed parenting plan

Adoption

Juvenile Court Forms Emancipation, Shelter Care Proceedings, Dependency Proceedings, Termination and Reinstatement of Parent-Child Relationship, CHINS/At-Risk Youth, Juvenile Offense - Diversion Agreements, Juvenile Offense proceedings in Juvenile court, Declining Juvenile Court Jurisdiction, Juvenile Court Records, Miscellaneous, Out-Of-Home Placement, Relief from Offender Registration Requirements, Title 13 RCW Guardianship, Truancy, Juvenile Court Forms

Title 11 RCW Guardianship Forms Requesting a Guardianship or Limited Guardianship, Guardianship Court Records, Lay Guardian Training, Appointing Guardian and Activities (1st 90 days), Periodic Reporting, Closing a Guardianship, Miscellaneous Guardianship Complaint Transfer of Guardianship

Financial Bankruptcy, Garnishment, Order of Default, Small Claims

Criminal Law Indigent Defense, Felony Judgment and Sentence, Guilty Plea, Misdemeanor Judgment and Sentencing, Relief from Offender Registration Requirements, Deferred Prosecution, Certificate of Discharge/Provisional Voting Rights, Vacating/Sealing Records, Modify/Rescind Domestic Violence No-Contact Orders, Waive or Reduce interest on LFO

Mental Proceedings Forensic Evaluation and Competency Restoration Orders - 10.77 RCW, Involuntary Civil Commitment Orders - 71.05 RCW, Petition for Initial Detention by Family, Guardian, Conservator

General Appellate Processing Forms, Name Change, Dismissal, Cover Sheets, General Rule 22 Forms, GR33 Request for Reasonable Accommodation GR 34 Request for Waiver of Civil Filing Fees and Surcharges

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King County Resources

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Washington State Courts - Court Forms

Motivation bezeichnet das auf emotionaler und neuronaler Aktivitt (Aktivierung) beruhende Streben des Menschen nach Zielen oder wnschenswerten Zielobjekten.[1] Die Gesamtheit der Beweggrnde (Motive), die zur Handlungsbereitschaft fhren, nennt man Motivation.[2] Die Umsetzung von Motiven in Handlungen nennt man Volition oder Umsetzungskompetenz.[3]

Die Bezeichnung Motivation ist auf das lateinische Verb movere (bewegen, antreiben) zurckzufhren.[4]

Motivation als zielgerichtetes Verhalten wurde in historischer Perspektive zunchst genetisch, also durch angeborene Instinkte erklrt. Beispiele sind der Saug- oder Greifreflex eines Neugeborenen (Frhkindlicher Reflex). Im Laufe der Zeit wurden rund 6.000 Instinkte zusammengetragen und begrifflich gegliedert. Derartige Typologien knnen allerdings das Verhalten nicht erklren. Deswegen folgten darauf Theorien, die auf dem Paradigma der Homostase basieren und den Begriff Bedrfnis in den Vordergrund rckten (drive-reduction theories). Demnach entsteht Motivation durch das Bedrfnis, ein physiologisches Gleichgewicht wiederherzustellen. Beispiele sind Hunger, Durst oder Fortpflanzung. Das Verhalten wird somit in Richtung Bedrfnisbefriedigung gelenkt. Motiviertes Verhalten existiert allerdings auch dann, wenn physiologische Bedrfnisse bereits befriedigt sind. Daher wurden Anreiz- oder Aktivierungstheorien entwickelt. Motivation resultiert demnach aus dem Bestreben nach optimaler Aktivierung (von Emotionen).[5] Diese sind wiederum definiert als psychophysische Reaktionen, die mit der Aktivierung zentralnervser Systeme einhergehen.[6] Beispiel: Fragt man einen Bergsteiger, was ihn dazu motiviert, einen (anstrengenden und gefhrlichen) Gipfel zu erklimmen, drfte seine Antwort lauten: Einfach weil der Berg da ist. Dies ist zugleich ein Beispiel fr gelernte Motive.[7]

Eine (typische) Definition der Motivation lautet: Indem Emotionen signalisieren, ob etwas gut oder schlecht, gefhrlich oder harmlos ist, und mit welcher allgemeinen Klasse von Verhaltensweisen (z.B. Flucht, Verteidigung) darauf reagiert werden sollte, spielen sie eine zentrale Rolle bei der Motivation zielgerichteten Verhaltens Whrend umstritten ist, ob die Wahrnehmung krperlicher Reaktionsmuster eine notwendige oder hinreichende Bedingung fr das Vorliegen einer Emotion ist, herrscht allerdings weitgehend Einigkeit darber, dass physiologische Erregung mageblich zu der spezifischen Erlebnisqualitt beitrgt, die Emotionen von kalten Kognitionen unterscheidet.[8]

Schlielich wre noch der Begriff Gefhl zu klren. Dieser bezeichnet die subjektiv wahrgenommene Seite einer Emotion. Beispielsweise kann sich jemand minderwertig fhlen, weil bei ihm die Emotion Angst ausgelst wurde. Emotionen zeigen in der Regel an, ob Motive befriedigt oder frustriert wurden, und knnen als Gefhle unterschiedlich empfunden (gefhlt) werden.[9]

Zusammenfassend kann man diese Begriffe wie folgt darstellen:[10] Die Aktivierung (zentralnervser Systeme) ist Voraussetzung jeglicher Handlungen. Kommen zu dieser inneren Erregung angenehme oder unangenehme Empfindungen hinzu, handelt es sich um eine Emotion (Ich fhle mich wohl oder unwohl). Wird eine Emotion mit einer Zielorientierung verknpft, handelt es sich um ein Motiv. Whrend es sich bei einem Motiv um eine berdauernde, latente Disposition (Handlungsbereitschaft) handelt, bezeichnet der Begriff Motivation den Prozess der Aktualisierung eines Motivs. Diese Aktualisierung oder Umsetzung von Motiven nennt man in der neueren Motivationsforschung auch Volition.[11]

Der deutscher Begriff fr Motivation ist Handlungsantrieb.

Die bedeutendsten Meilensteine der Geschichte von Motivationstheorien fassten Richard Steers Co-Autoren[12] 2004 zusammen:

Nach dem Aufkommen der so genannten Humanistischen Psychologie Anfang der 1950er Jahre als der dritten Kraft neben der Tiefenpsychologie (Freud) und dem Behaviorismus (Skinner) entstanden zwei Theorien, die heute aufgrund unzureichender (empirischer) Validitt als (wissenschaftlich) gescheitert gelten (gleichwohl sind sie allgemein bis heute recht bekannt):

In den 1960er und 1970er Jahren entstanden so genannte Prozesstheorien der Motivation. Zu den bekanntesten gehrt das Modell von Porter und Lawler (siehe Abbildung). Demnach ist die persnliche Anstrengung (Motivation) vom Wert der erwarteten Belohnung und von der Erfolgswahrscheinlichkeit der Handlung abhngig. Je nach Fhigkeit und Rollenwahrnehmung fhrt die Anstrengung zu bestimmten Leistungen (Ergebnissen). Wenn uere und innere Belohnungen hinzukommen, steigt die Zufriedenheit, die wiederum zu neuen Leistungen antreibt.[18] Zum besseren Verstndnis sei betont, dass dem Modell von Porter und Lawler das Prinzip des Erwartungswertes zugrunde liegt: Handlungen entstehen durch Wnsche nach bestimmten Sachverhalten (Wertberzeugungen) und berzeugungen ber Handlungen, die geeignet erscheinen, diese Wnsche herbeizufhren (Mittel-berzeugungen). Folglich whlen Menschen unter mehreren Handlungsalternativen diejenigen aus, die den hchsten Erwartungswert haben.[19]

Seit der ersten Publikation dieser Theorie kam es zu einer fast unberschaubaren Flle von Untersuchungen zu diesem Thema. Eine abschlieende Einschtzung dieser Diskussion erscheint kaum mglich. Dennoch lassen sich zwei Forschungsschwerpunkte identifizieren:[20]

Der Begriff intrinsische Motivation bezeichnet das Bestreben, etwas um seiner selbst willen zu tun (weil es einfach Spa macht, Interessen befriedigt oder eine Herausforderung darstellt). Bei der extrinsischen Motivation steht dagegen der Wunsch im Vordergrund, bestimmte Leistungen zu erbringen, weil man sich davon einen Vorteil (Belohnung) verspricht oder Nachteile (Bestrafung) vermeiden mchte.[27]

Die neuere Motivationsforschung (John Barbuto und Richard Scholl, 1998) unterscheidet zwischen zwei intrinsischen und drei extrinsischen Quellen der Motivation. Die Autoren untersuchten die bedeutendsten Motivationstheorien seit Abraham Maslow (1954) und entwickelten daraus das Konzept der Fnf Quellen der Motivation.[28] Dabei spielt der Ansatz der Drei Groen Motive (Big Three) von David McClelland eine zentrale Rolle. Bei diesen Motiven handelt es sich um das Macht-, Zugehrigkeits- und Leistungsmotiv.[29] Die genauere Beschreibung dieser Motive kann man aus der nebenstehenden Grafik ersehen.

McClelland ist es an der Harvard Medical School gelungen nachzuweisen, dass die Anregung dieser Motive mit der Ausschttung bestimmter Neurotransmitter verbunden ist:

Dies kann man als Beleg fr die empirische Existenz dieser Motive werten (im Gegensatz zu philosophisch vermuteten oder statistisch ermittelten Motiven). Zu den weiteren Theorien, die Barbuto und Scholl herangezogen haben, gehren die Anstze von Frederick Herzberg (1968), Albert Bandura (1986) oder von Daniel Katz und Robert Kahn (1978). Ausgehend von diesen Anstzen entwickeln und validieren die Autoren einen Test (Inventar) zur Messung dieser, wie sie es nennen, Quellen der Motivation mithilfe einer Unabhngigkeitsanalyse. Sie basiert auf einer Stichprobe von 156 Probanden und einem Pool von 60 Items, die zuvor durch Expertenurteile validiert wurden (face validity). Das Ergebnis der Studie ist eine Typologie von fnf Motivationsquellen zwei intrinsischen und drei extrinsischen.

Diese lassen sich nach Barbuto und Scholl wie folgt beschreiben:

Intrinsisch

Extrinsisch

Die Konsequenzen und praktischen Anwendungsmglichkeiten sind noch nicht absehbar; sie erscheinen vielversprechend. Beispielsweise konnte John Barbuto in einer zweiten Studie mit 186 Fhrungskrften und 759 Mitarbeitern nachweisen, dass ein signifikanter Zusammenhang zwischen den Kompetenzen im Konzept der Transformationalen Fhrung und den fnf Motivationsquellen existiert.[31] Die Transformationale Fhrung beschreibt nach zahlreichen empirischen Studien[32] (wirtschaftlich) besonders erfolgreiche Fhrungskrfte. Zu ihren Strken gehren: (1) Wahrnehmung der Vorbildfunktion, (2) die Fhigkeit zur Vermittlung von Zielen und Perspektiven, (3) Frderung der Lernfhigkeit ihrer Mitarbeiter, (4) eine als fair empfundene Art der Kommunikation und Verantwortungsbereitschaft. Ein besseres Verstndnis der Quellen der Motivation mit dem Konzept von Barbuto knnte somit einen wesentlichen Beitrag zur Auswahl, Frderung und Entwicklung von Fach- und Fhrungskrften leisten. Hinzu kommt der gezieltere Personaleinsatz zur Vermeidung von Frustration am Arbeitsplatz und zur Frderung der Motivation. Beispiel: Ein Mitarbeiter, der die intrinsische Prozessmotivation als Quelle hat, bentigt vllig andere Aufgaben und muss vllig anders entwickelt und motiviert werden als jemand, fr den die Internalisierung von Zielen gilt.

Intrinsische Motivation kann durch extrinsische Belohnungen zerstrt werden: Wenn ein Verhalten fast nur durch uere Anreize (Anweisungen, Belohnung) gesteuert wird, sinkt die innere Beteiligung, da so das Gefhl der Selbstbestimmung unterminiert wird. Dadurch kann die Selbstmotivierungsfunktion, die fr das Erlebnis sorgt, dass die Freude der Ttigkeit selbst entspringt (Flow), auer Kraft gesetzt werden (sog. Korrumpierungs- oder Overjustification-Effekt).[33] Die Existenz dieses Effekts ist jedoch umstritten.[34]

Inhaltsmodelle knnen von Prozessmodellen unterschieden werden. Whrend Inhaltsmodelle menschliches Verhalten allein aufgrund bestimmter psychischer Inhalte erklren, fhren Prozessmodelle das Verhalten auch auf bestimmte physische Vorgnge zurck.

Diese Modelle beschftigen sich mit Inhalt, Art und Wirkung von Motiven. Eine Taxonomie von Motiven wird geboten und bestimmt, nach welchen Gesetzmigkeiten welche Motive verhaltensbestimmend werden.

Diese Modelle versuchen zu erklren, wie Motivation formal und losgelst von Bedrfnisinhalten entsteht und auf das Verhalten wirkt. Das Ziel des Verhaltens ist unbestimmt, aber das Individuum will den subjektiv erwarteten Nutzen maximieren.

Motivationstheorien spielen in vielen Lebensbereichen eine wichtige Rolle. Beispiele sind:

Die Beschftigung mit der Motivation aus Sicht der Ethologie wird im Artikel Handlungsbereitschaft behandelt.

Sportliche Leistungsmotivation ist eine zentrale Variable zur Erklrung sportlicher Leistungen (Frintrup & Schuler, 2007). Sie kann (ergnzend zu physiologischen Parametern) die Unterschiede der Leistungen von Sportlern aufklren.

Zur Messung sportbezogener Motivation liegen im deutschsprachigen Raum drei Verfahren vor: AMS Sport (Elbe, 2002), SOQ Sport Orientation Questionnaire (deutsche bersetzung von Elbe, 2004) und der Sportbezogene Leistungsmotivationstest SMT (Frintrup & Schuler, 2007). Zu letzteren Verfahren liegen sportpsychologische Validierungsuntersuchungen vor, die inkrementelle Validitt ber AMS Sport und SOQ ausweisen (die inkrementelle Validitt des SMT betrgt je nach Kriterium und Sportart bis zu R.17 resp. R.16). Die Kriterienbezogene Validitt der Einzelverfahren betragen (jeweils unkorrigiert) R=.55 (SMT), R=.24 (AMS) und R=.41 (SOQ) (vgl. Olofsson, A., Frintrup, A. & Schuler, H., 2008); (Anmerkung: R kann Betrge von 0.00 bis 1.00 annehmen, wobei 0.00 keine Korrelation und 1.00 eine perfekte Korrelation aufzeigt). Hierdurch wird der nachhaltige Nutzen einer sportpsychologischen Motivationsdiagnostik jenseits der Verwendung rein physiologischer Leistungsprdiktoren dokumentiert.

Nur aus validen, erklrenden Theorien lassen sich praktische Handlungsempfehlungen fr die Motivation von Menschen ableiten.[36] Einen naturwissenschaftlich Beitrag dazu liefern die Neurowissenschaften. Hier gilt die Motivation als eine Art Triebkraft oder Energie fr zielgerichtetes Verhalten.[37] Diese Triebkraft kann man mit einer Energiequelle vergleichen. Man spricht auch von Handlungsbereitschaft.[38] Diese muss zunchst ausgelst (aktiviert) werden. Zu dieser aktivierenden muss eine zweite Art der Energie hinzukommen. Sie ist notwendig, um Handlungen bis zum Abschluss (Zielerreichung) aufrechtzuerhalten. Der Fachbegriff dafr heit Volition.[39] In der Alltagssprache nennt man dies auch Durchhaltevermgen oder Willenskraft.

Bei den Energiequellen handelt es sich um die oben beschriebenen Quellen der intrinsischen und extrinsischen Motivation, die man zunchst aktivieren (auslsen) muss. Diesem Konzept von John Barbuto und Richard Scholl liegt die Theorie zugrunde, wonach diese Motivationsquellen mit bestimmten Hormonen zusammenhngen.[40] Die Autoren haben auch ein Inventar zur Messung dieser Motive vorgeschlagen und damit einen wichtigen Beitrag zur Validierung geleistet. Ihr Ansatz ist eine Fortfhrung der Theorie der drei Schlsselmotive Motive von David McClelland (siehe dazu die Grafik weiter oben).[41]

Nachdem ein Motiv ausgelst wurde, sind bestimmte (erlernbare) Fhigkeiten notwendig, damit die Energie bis zur Zielerreichung aufrechterhalten bleibt. Nach Roy Baumeister handelt es sich um Willenskraft, die er als erschpfbare Ressource interpretiert. Man kann sie jedoch durch entsprechendes Training vergleichbar mit einem Muskeltraining regenerieren und somit strken.[42] Nach einer empirischen Studie mit 5.631 Teilnehmern von Waldemar Pelz lsst sich diese Willenskraft (Fachbegriff: Volition) durch Vernderung bestimmter Verhaltensgewohnheiten strken: Reduzierung Energie zehrender und Ausbau Energie spendender Gewohnheiten.[43] Die nebenstehende Grafik zeigt einige Beispiele fr derartige Verhaltensgewohnheiten.

Ansonsten kann man die pragmatischen, auf gesundem Menschenverstand beruhenden Regeln der Motivation anwenden:[44]

Link:
Motivation Wikipedia

Staying motivated is a struggle our drive is constantly assaulted by negative thoughts and anxiety about the future. Everyone faces doubt and depression. What separates the highly successful is the ability to keep moving forward.

There is no simple solution for a lack of motivation. Even after beating it, the problem reappears at the first sign of failure. The key is understanding your thoughts and how they drive your emotions. By learning how to nurture motivating thoughts, neutralize negative ones, and focus on the task at hand, you can pull yourself out of a slump before it gains momentum.

There are 3 primary reasons we lose motivation.

The first motivation killer is a lack of confidence. When this happens to me, its usually because Im focusing entirely on what I want and neglecting what I already have. When you only think about what you want, your mind creates explanations for why you arent getting it. This creates negative thoughts. Past failures, bad breaks, and personal weaknesses dominate your mind. You become jealous of your competitors and start making excuses for why you cant succeed. In this state, you tend to make a bad impression, assume the worst about others, and lose self confidence.

The way to get out of this thought pattern is to focus on gratitude. Set aside time to focus on everything positive in your life. Make a mental list of your strengths, past successes, and current advantages. We tend to take our strengths for granted and dwell on our failures. By making an effort to feel grateful, youll realize how competent and successful you already are. This will rejuvenate your confidence and get you motivated to build on your current success.

It might sound strange that repeating things you already know can improve your mindset, but its amazingly effective. The mind distorts reality to confirm what it wants to believe. The more negatively you think, the more examples your mind will discover to confirm that belief. When you truly believe that you deserve success, your mind will generate ways to achieve it. The best way to bring success to yourself is to genuinely desire to create value for the rest of the world.

The second motivation killer is a lack of focus. How often do you focus on what you dont want, rather than on a concrete goal? We normally think in terms of fear. Im afraid of being poor. Im afraid no one will respect me. Im afraid of being alone. The problem with this type of thinking is that fear alone isnt actionable. Instead of doing something about our fear, it feeds on itself and drains our motivation.

If youre caught up in fear based thinking, the first step is focusing that energy on a well defined goal. By defining a goal, you automatically define a set of actions. If you have a fear of poverty, create a plan to increase your income. It could be going back to school, obtaining a higher paying job, or developing a profitable website. The key is moving from an intangible desire to concrete, measurable steps.

By focusing your mind on a positive goal instead of an ambiguous fear, you put your brain to work. It instantly begins devising a plan for success. Instead of worrying about the future you start to do something about it. This is the first step in motivating yourself to take action. When know what you want, you become motivated to take action.

The final piece in the motivational puzzle is direction. If focus means having an ultimate goal, direction is having a day-to-day strategy to achieve it. A lack of direction kills motivation because without an obvious next action we succumb to procrastination. An example of this is a person who wants to have a popular blog, but who spends more time reading posts about blogging than actually writing articles.

The key to finding direction is identifying the activities that lead to success. For every goal, there are activities that pay off and those that dont. Make a list of all your activities and arrange them based on results. Then make a make an action plan that focuses on the activities that lead to big returns. To continue the example from above, a bloggers list would look something like this:

Keeping track of your most important tasks will direct your energy towards success. Without a constant reminder, its easy to waste entire days on filler activities like reading RSS feeds, email, and random web surfing.

When my motivation starts to wane, I regain direction by creating a plan that contains two positive actions. The first one should be a small task youve been meaning to do, while the second should be a long-term goal. I immediately do the smaller task. This creates positive momentum. After that I take the first step towards achieving the long-term goal. Doing this periodically is great for getting out of a slump, creating positive reinforcement, and getting long-term plans moving.

Its inevitable that youll encounter periods of low energy, bad luck, and even the occasional failure. If you dont discipline your mind, these minor speed bumps can turn into mental monsters. By being on guard against the top 3 motivation killers you can preserve your motivation and propel yourself to success.

Read more:
How To Motivate Yourself Self Motivation | PickTheBrain ...

Some of the most rewarding messages we receive are thank you letters from fans, book readers, and training participants who have used the skills and principles to change their lives, relationships, and personal results. Read a few below and see what we mean.

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To drop 45 pounds, Meagan Palmer targeted six sources of influence to adopt two vital behaviors that would inevitably lead to weight loss.

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Using six sources of influence, Patrice Putman transformed corporate culture at MaineGeneral Health from one of a culture of silence to a culture of candid and respectful dialogue.

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My relationship with my husband and my family has greatly improved because, in the middle of a difficult and crucial conversation, I was willing to stop and ask myself, What do I really want?'"

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VitalSmarts and Poertner Consulting Group are pleased to announce a new era in their joint service.

VitalSmarts has acquired the business and will maintain the presence in your area to provide you with streamlined and enhanced customer support.

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VitalSmarts and LeadershipSmarts are pleased to announce a new era in their joint service.

VitalSmarts has acquired the business and will maintain the presence in your area to provide you with streamlined and enhanced customer support.

We look forward to working with you!

If you have any questions, please email VitalSmarts at support at vitalsmarts dot com.

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