Much has been written of Gurdjieffs relationship with his chief pupils, but his relationship with Fritz Peters is rarely, if ever, mentioned. And yet, it is unique. Only 11 years old when he first met Gurdjieff in 1924, just a month before Gurdjieffs car crash, Fritz Peters was quickly drawn into the life of the Prieur. In the months following the accident, the young boy acted as Gurdjieffs chair-carrier, following him everywhere, watching out for his safety. Later, Freets, as Gurdjieff called him, was enlisted as Gurdjieffs personal servant, delivering messages, doing errands, cleaning his room. And soon, every Tuesday morning the young Fritzwho, when Gurdjieff first asked what he wanted most to know, had answered: I want to know everythingwas receiving private lessons from Gurdjieff.

At such a young and impressionable age to be taken under the wing of a master like Gurdjieff is a blessing as great as it is unique. But it can be a kind of curse, as well, if not taken rightly. One learns only by consciously living ones errors and Peters later life shows how harrowing a journey that can be. Leaving the Prieur in October 1929, Fritz Peters, then 15 years old, was immediately thrown into a turbulent adult world where he found himself totally alone, blamed and victimized, fighting for his very survival. Developed and shaped by his Prieur training, Fritz Peters walked his lifes path, always the outsider, the rebel, the malcontent. He would become a member of the Chicago and New York groups, but, though the teaching and Gurdjieff were in his blood, he never found his place in the Work. His days with Gurdjieff at the Prieur were over. Neither the Chicago nor New York groups were serious enough for him. Too much reverence for Gurdjieff. Too many members he saw as phony. His experience at the Prieur was undeniably special, but as Gurdjieff warnedEvery stick has two ends. But Peters never saw the other end of the Prieur stick. Though keenly observant and detesting any sign of falseness, he didnt see that he had allowed his early experience to make him too special, too separate. He became, as it was expressed one day in 1945 at 6 rue des Colonels Renarda colossal egotist.

Gurdjieffs Successor That 32-year-old Fritz Peters, standing amidst a group of wartime French pupils in Gurdjieffs apartment that autumn day, could for even a moment have believed it when 73-year-old Gurdjieff pointed to him as his successor.Well, to the assembled pupils, who regularly had to pass Nazi checkpoints to get to meetings at Gurdjieffs apartment, it was yet another vivid proof of Peters overweening self-love.

That Gurdjieffs act had evoked, as well, a trace of will-to-power and envy in those who had not grown up at the Prieur, or enjoyed as intimate a relationship with Gurdjieff, was perhaps neither recognized nor appreciated. And certainly the later life of Fritz Peters, filled as it was with seizures of anger, jealousy, rejection, vengeance, nervous breakdowns1 and alcoholism, would do nothing to mitigate the sweeping indictment of him on that day in postwar Paris. It would forever brand Peters as a nullity, a fool, no one to take seriously. The one group of people, then, that might have understood Fritz Peters all but disowned him. Though he was to later write Boyhood with Gurdjieff and Gurdjieff Remembered, two books that are without rival in portraying the heart and soul of Gurdjieff in the last period of his life, Fritz Peters remains maligned and marginalized, his relationship with Gurdjieff never seriously considered.

Meeting such a monumental father-figure so early in life took nearly a lifetime for Peters to digest. For years Peters struggled with Gurdjieffs identity and his own relationship to Gurdjieff and to the teaching. In his last book, Balanced Man, Peters recounts how as late as 1960, 46 years after he first met Gurdjieff, I was still laboring under the impression that I was specialthe real son of a Messiah. In an emotional sense, I was Gurdjieffs son. I loved him more than anyone I had ever known. But times changeI no longer feel like anyones son. As Gurdjieff foresaw, Peters would not lead a happy life. He had a broken marriage, alcoholism, homosexuality, and relationships that inevitably turned contentious.

Troublemaker. Thats how Fritz Peters was commonly seen. And not simply a troublemaker but a born troublemaker, according to Gurdjieff. Like Rachmilevitch, a lawyer and member of the St. Petersburg group and later a Prieur resident, Peters had the inborn knack of setting peoples teeth on edge, bringing up the animal in them. Although Gurdjieff said that we should thank anyone who gives us the opportunity to see ourselvesto see a little I or two in us, yesbut to see the animal-I? Who wants that? Ouspensky didnt want it. Nor Orage. Certainly not Bennett.

The similarity between the young boy and Rachmilevitch was seen at once by Gurdjieff. You remember, how I tell you that you make trouble? Gurdjieff said. This true, but you only child. Rachmilevitch grown man and not mischievous, like you, but have such personality that he constantly cause friction whatever he do, wherever he live. He not make serious trouble, but he make friction on surface of life, all the time. He cannot help thishe too old to change now. I know no one person like him, no person who just by existence, without conscious effort, produce friction in all people around him. Like the caring father that Peters never hadhis father having deserted the family when he was only 18 months of ageGurdjieff was using the figure of Rachmilevitch to show Peters what he would become if he continued to act as he did. All children are naturally mischievous at times, but if Fritz allowed this characteristic, this I, to grow and become fixed in personality, if he did not work to control it, in adulthood it would control him.

Conscious Troublemaking To be a troublemaker is, in itself, nothing bad, Gurdjieff told him. Troublemakers, in fact, play an important role in life. What you not understand, Gurdjieff said, is that not everyone can be troublemaker, like you. This important in lifeis ingredient, like yeast for making bread. Without trouble, conflict, life become dead. People live in status quo, live only by habit, automatically, and without conscience.

Gurdjieff confided that he, too, was a troublemaker. The difference between them was that he played the role consciously, molding it to circumstances; creating conditions and friction in the service of awakening people to what keeps them asleep. This stepping on toes is a Divine principle2 when consciously directed, when not born of the mechanical reaction to make others suffer; make them pay for trespasses, injustices, psychic wounds. To be able to call up a role in oneself and play it, that is one thing; to be controlled by it, quite another.

Of trespasses, injustices and psychic wounds, Fritz Peters life would be filled to the brim. After his father divorced his mother, Lois, she married an Englishman, a Chicago lawyer, who was far from fatherly. His early life was marred by physical calamitiesdisasters he called them and rightly so. His older brother Tom, for example, stuck a crochet hook in his right eye, which permanently blinded Fritz in that eye. His grandmother put him in the bathtub and then went to answer the telephone. He turned on the hot water and could not turn it off. As his grandmother was deaf,3 it wasnt until his screams were heard by a neighbor that he, now partly parboiled, was rescued.

When he was nine years old, Fritzs mother was hospitalized with a nervous breakdown that lasted about a year. It was then that his mothers sister Margaret Anderson and her companion Jane Heap took on the responsibility of caring for Fritz4 and his older brother, Tom. That was in 1923. In June 1924 Fritz and his brother were brought by Anderson and Heap to the Prieur. Upon meeting Gurdjieff the 11-year-old was asked, among other things, what he wanted to know.

I want to know everything, Fritz replied.

You cannot know everything, Gurdjieff told him. Everything about what?

Everything about man. In English I think it is called psychology or maybe philosophy.

Gurdjieff sighed and after a short silence answered: You can stay. But your answer makes life difficult for me. I am the only one who teaches what you ask. You make more work for me.

This exchange, like so many others, gives an indication of Peters quality of mind and mental maturity.

A Piece of Unwanted Luggage

In October of that year Fritz and his brother left the Prieur to return to New York. There, the boys mother, their real father and Jane Heap became involved in an emotional struggle for their allegiance. Fritz and his brother were shunted back and forth so much that Fritz began to feel even more alone than I had beforelike a piece of unwanted luggage for which storage space was needed.

It seems Jane won and, as Margaret had stayed on in Europe with her new friend, the actress and singer Georgette Leblanc, the primary care for the boys devolved to her. Of his relationship with Jane, Fritz said that it was highly volatile and explosive. There was, at times, a great deal of emotion, of love, between us, but the very emotionality of the relationship frightened me. More and more I tended to shut out everything that was outside of myself. People, for me, were something I had to exist with, had to bear. As much as possible, I lived alone, day-dreaming in my own world, longing for a time when I could escape from the complex, and often totally incomprehensible, world around me. I wanted to grow up and be aloneaway from all of them. With characteristic insight and frankness, he says of these early years: Obstinate and independent because of my feeling of aloneness, I was usually in trouble, frequently punished. He said that Jane once went so far as to hit him with a board with nails in it because he refused to do as he was told. Even so, Jane eventually came to the idea that she and Margaret5 should adopt the boys. And so they did. I am not at all sure that I understand why Margaret and Jane took on this responsibility. It was a strange form of planned parenthood for two women neither of whom, it seemed to me, would have wished for children of their own, and a mixed blessing from any point of view.6

Fritz and his brother returned to the Prieur in the spring of 1925. When Gurdjieff saw him he put his hand on the boys head, and Fritz looked up at his fierce mustaches, the broad, open smile underneath the shining, bald head. Like some large, warm animal, he pulled me to his side, squeezing me affectionately with his arm and hand, and saying Soyou come back? In the middle of that summer, reminding Fritz of his desire to know everything, Gurdjieff began giving him private lessons. Every Tuesday morning at 10 oclock sharp Peters was to go the second floor of the chteau, the Ritz, as it was called, and report to Gurdjieffs room.

The lessons and all of his ensuing experiences at the Prieur with its adult population are well-documented in Peters book Boyhood With Gurdjieff. The unusual maturity, clarity, and will of Peters is demonstrated many times in the book, but one incident in particular is striking. Gurdjieff was having the lawns of the Prieur resown and had all the pupils out on the lawns. But Gurdjieff had them working so close together that planting new seed was a useless activity since it was immediately trampled underfoot. Days passed. No one said a thing. Finally Rachmilevitch, thick with rage, confronted Gurdjieff. He told him the work was insane and stalked off. It was the first time Gurdjieff had ever been publicly defied.

Rachmilevitch & the Apple Tree An hour passed and Rachmilevitch did not return. Peters was sent to find him and bring him back. Peters protested, saying he didnt know where he had gone. Trust your instincts, Gurdjieff told him. It was then that Peters demonstrated, though he didnt know it, a lesson Gurdjieff had been teaching him. Not knowing where Rachmilevitch had gone, he put himself in the Russians place, experiencing empathy with him. A hunch came as to where he might be and Peters set off towards the woods beyond the main, formal gardens. He said, It seemed to me that he could only have gone to one of the distant vegetable gardensa walk of at least a mile, and I headed for the furthest one, at the very end of the property. There, he found the 60-year-old sitting up in an apple tree.

He wouldnt go back to the chteau, Rachmilevitch insisted. What to do? How could Fritz Peters argue with a man who was not only five times his age, but a lawyer7 as well? So he did the only thing possible and he did it with all his will. Said Peters: I did not know of any argumentsI could not think of any good reasonswith which to persuade him to come back, so I said that I would wait there as long as he did; that I could not return without him. Finally, after a long silence, Rachmilevitch dropped out of the apple tree and returned to the chteau with him. (To be continued)

Notes

First printed in The Gurdjieff Journal.

William Patrick Patterson is the author of seven books on The Fourth Way, the latest of which is Spiritual Survival in a Radically Changing World-Time.

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For the use of this term in other Indian religions, see Karma.

Karma (Sanskrit, also karman, Pli: kamma) is a Sanskrit term that literally means "action" or "doing". In the Buddhist tradition, karma refers to action driven by intention (cetan) which leads to future consequences. Those intentions are considered to be the determining factor in the kind of rebirth in samsara, the cycle of rebirth.

Karma (Sanskrit, also karman, Pli: kamma, Tib. las) is a Sanskrit term that literally means "action" or "doing". The word karma derives from the verbal root k, which means "do, make, perform, accomplish."

Karmaphala (Tib. rgyu 'bras[note 1]) is the "fruit", "effect" or "result" of karma. A similar term is karmavipaka, the "maturation" or "cooking" of karma:

The remote effects of karmic choices are referred to as the 'maturation' (vipka) or 'fruit' (phala) of the karmic act."

The metaphor is derived from agriculture:

One sows a seed, there is a time lag during which some mysterious invisible process takes place, and then the plant pops up and can be harvested.

Karma and karmaphala are fundamental concepts in Buddhism. The concepts of karma and karmaphala explain how our intentional actions keep us tied to rebirth in samsara, whereas the Buddhist path, as exemplified in the Noble Eightfold Path, shows us the way out of samsara.

Rebirth,[note 2], is a common belief in all Buddhist traditions. It says that birth and death in the six realms occur in successive cycles driven by ignorance (avidy), desire (trsn), and hatred (dvesa). The cycle of rebirth is called samsar. It is a beginningless and ever-ongoing process. Liberation from samsar can be attained by following the Buddhist Path. This path leads to vidy, and the stilling of trsn and dvesa. Hereby the ongoing process of rebirth is stopped.

The cycle of rebirth is determined by karma, literally "action".[note 3] In the Buddhist tradition, karma refers to actions driven by intention (cetan),[quote 1] a deed done deliberately through body, speech or mind, which leads to future consequences. The Nibbedhika Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya 6.63:

Intention (cetana) I tell you, is kamma. Intending, one does kamma by way of body, speech, & intellect.[web 1][note 4]

According to Peter Harvey,

It is the psychological impulse behind an action that is 'karma', that which sets going a chain of causes culminating in karmic fruit. Actions, then, must be intentional if they are to generate karmic fruits.

And according to Gombrich,

The Buddha defined karma as intention; whether the intention manifested itself in physical, vocal or mental form, it was the intention alone which had a moral character: good, bad or neutral [...] The focus of interest shifted from physical action, involving people and objects in the real world, to psychological process.

According to Gombrich, this was a great innovation, which overturns brahmanical, caste-bound ethics. It's a rejection of caste-bound differences, giving the same possibility to reach liberation to all people, not just Brahmanins:

Not by birth is one a brahmin or an outcaste, but by deeds (kamma).[note 5]

How this emphasis on intention was to be interpreted became a matter of debate in and between the various Buddhist schools.[note 6]

Karma leads to future consequences, karma-phala, "fruit of action". Any given action may cause all sorts of results, but the karmic results are only those results which are a consequence of both the moral quality of the action, and of the intention behind the action.[note 7] According to Reichenbach,

[T]he consequences envisioned by the law of karma encompass more (as well as less) than the observed natural or physical results which follow upon the performance of an action.

The "law of karma" applies

...specifically to the moral sphere [It is] not concerned with the general relation between actions and their consequences, but rather with the moral quality of actions and their consequences, such as the pain and pleasure and good or bad experiences for the doer of the act.

Good moral actions lead to wholesome rebirths, and bad moral actions lead to unwholesome rebirths.[quote 3][quote 4] The main factor is how they contribute to the well-being of others in a positive or negative sense. Especially dna, giving to the buddhist order, became an increasingly important source of positive karma.

How these intentional actions lead to rebirth, and how the idea of rebirth is to be reconciled with the doctrines of impermanence and no-self,[quote 5] is a matter of philosophical inquiry in the Buddhist traditions, for which several solutions have been proposed. In early Buddhism no explicit theory of rebirth and karma is worked out, and "the karma doctrine may have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology." In early Buddhism, rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance.

In later Buddhism, the basic ideas is that intentional actions, driven by kleshas ("disturbing emotions"),[web 3] cetan ("volition"), or tah ("thirst", "craving") create impressions,[web 4][note 8] tendencies[web 4] or "seeds" in the mind. These impressions, or "seeds", will ripen into a future result or fruition.[quote 6][note 9] If we can overcome our kleshas, then we break the chain of causal effects that leads to rebirth in the six realms.[web 3] The twelve links of dependent origination provides a theoretical framework, explaining how the disturbing emotions lead to rebirth in samsara.[note 10]

The Buddha's teaching of karma is not strictly deterministic, but incorporated circumstantial factors, unlike that of the Jains.[quote 7] It is not a rigid and mechanical process, but a flexible, fluid and dynamic process, and not all present conditions can be ascribed to karma.[note 11][quote 8] There is no set linear relationship between a particular action and its results. The karmic effect of a deed is not determined solely by the deed itself, but also by the nature of the person who commits the deed, and by the circumstances in which it is committed.

Karma is also not the same as "fate" or "predestination".[web 6] Karmic results are not a "judgement" imposed by a God or other all-powerful being, but rather the results of a natural process.[quote 9] Certain experiences in life are the results of previous actions, but our responses to those experiences are not predetermined, although they bear their own fruit in the future.[quote 10] Unjust behaviour may lead to unfavorable circumstances which make it easier to commit more unjust behavior, but nevertheless the freedom not to commit unjust behavior remains.

The real importance of the doctrine of karma and its fruits lies in the recognition of the urgency to put a stop to the whole process. The Acintita Sutta warns that "the results of kamma" is one of the four incomprehensible subjects,[web 7] subjects that are beyond all conceptualization and cannot be understood with logical thought or reason.[note 12]

According to Gombrich, this sutra may have been a warning against the tendency, "probably from the Buddha's day until now", to understand the doctrine of karma "backwards", to explain unfavorable conditions in this life when no other explanations are available. Gaining a better rebirth may have been, and still is, the central goal for many people. The adoption, by laity, of Buddhist beliefs and practices is seen as a good thing, which brings merit and good rebirth, but does not result in Nirvana, and liberation from samsara, the ultimate goal of the Buddha.

According to the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha gained full and complete insight into the workings of karma at the time of his enlightenment.[note 13] According to Bronkhorst, these knowledges are later additions to the story, just like the notion of "liberating insight" itself.[note 14]

In AN 5.292, the Buddha asserted that it is not possible to avoid experiencing the result of a karmic deed once it's been committed.

In the Anguttara Nikaya, it is stated that karmic results are experienced either in this life (P. diadhammika) or in a future lives (P. samparyika). The former may involve a readily observable connection between action and karmic consequence, such as when a thief is captured and tortured by the authorities, but the connection need not necessarily be that obvious and in fact usually is not observable.

The Sammyutta Nikaya makes a basic distinction between past karma (P. purnakamma) which has already been incurred, and karma being created in the present (P. navakamma).[80] Therefore, in the present one both creates new karma (P. navakamma) and encounters the result of past karma (P. kammavipka). Karma in the early canon is also threefold: Mental action (S. manakarman), bodily action (S. kyakarman) and vocal action (S. vkkarman).

Various Buddhist philosophical schools developed within Buddhism, giving various interpretations regarding more refined points of karma. A major problem is the relation between the doctrine of no-self, and the "storage" of the traces of one's deeds, for which various solutions have been offered.

The concept of karma originated in the Vedic religion, where it was related to the performance of rituals or the investment in good deeds to ensure the entrance to heaven after death, while other persons go to the underworld.

The concept of karma may have been of minor importance in early Buddhism. Schmithausen has questioned whether karma already played a role in the theory of rebirth of earliest Buddhism, noting that "the karma doctrine may have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology." Langer notes that originally karma may have been only one of several concepts connected with rebirth.[note 15] Tillman Vetter notes that in early Buddhism rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance. Buswell too notes that "Early Buddhism does not identify bodily and mental motion, but desire (or thirst, trsna), as the cause of karmic consequences." Matthews notes that "there is no single major systematic exposition" on the subject of karma and "an account has to be put together from the dozens of places where karma is mentioned in the texts," which may mean that the doctrine was incidental to the main perspective of early Buddhist soteriology.

According to Vetter, "the Buddha at first sought, and realized, "the deathless" (amata/amrta[note 16]), which is concerned with the here and now.[note 17] Only after this realization did he become acquainted with the doctrine of rebirth." Bronkhorst disagrees, and concludes that the Buddha "introduced a concept of karma that differed considerably from the commonly held views of his time." According to Bronkhorst, not physical and mental activities as such were seen as responsible for rebirth, but intentions and desire.

The doctrine of karma may have been especially important for common people, for whom it was more important to cope with life's immediate demands, such as the problems of pain, injustice, and death. The doctrine of karma met these exigencies, and in time it became an important soteriological aim in its own right.

The Vaibhika-Sarvstivda was widely influential in India and beyond. Their understanding of karma in the Sarvstivda became normative for Buddhism in India and other countries. According to Dennis Hirota,

Sarvastivadins argued that there exists a dharma of "possession" (prapti), which functions with all karmic acts, so that each act or thought, though immediately passing away, creates the "possession" of that act in the continuum of instants we experience as a person. This possession itself is momentary, but continually reproduces a similar possession in the succeeding instant, even though the original act lies in the past. Through such continual regeneration, the act is "possessed" until the actualization of the result.

The Abhidharmahdaya by Dharmar was the first systematic exposition of Vaibhika-Sarvstivda doctrine, and the third chapter, the Karma-varga, deals with the concept of karma systematically.

Another important exposition, the Mahvibha, gives three definitions of karma:

The 4th century philosopher Vasubandhu compiled the Abhidharma-koa, an extensive compendium which elaborated the positions of the Vaibhika-Sarvstivdin school on a wide range of issues raised by the early sutras. Chapter four the Koa is devoted to a study of karma, and chapters two and five contain formulation as to the mechanism of fruition and retribution. This became the main source of understanding of the perspective of early Buddhism for later Mahyna philosophers.

The Drntika-Sautrntika school pioneered the idea of karmic seeds (S. bija) and "the special modification of the psycho-physical series" (S. satatipamaviea) to explain the workings of karma. According to Dennis Hirota,

[T]he Sautrantikas [...] insisted that each act exists only in the present instant and perishes immediately. To explain causation, they taught that with each karmic act a "perfuming" occurs which, though not a dharma or existent factor itself, leaves a residual impression in the succeeding series of mental instants, causing it to undergo a process of subtle evolution eventually leading to the acts result. Good and bad deeds performed are thus said to leave "seeds" or traces of disposition that will come to fruition.

In the Theravda Abhidhamma and commentarial traditions, karma is taken up at length. The Abhidhamma Sangaha of Anuruddhcariya offers a treatment of the topic, with an exhaustive treatment in book five (5.3.7).

The Kathvatthu, which discusses a number of controverted points related either directly or indirectly to the notion of kamma." This involved debate with the Pudgalavdin school, which postulated the provisional existence of the person (S. pudgala, P. puggala) to account for the ripening of karmic effects over time. The Kathvatthu also records debate by the Theravdins with the Andhakas (who may have been Mahsghikas) regarding whether or not old age and death are the result (vipka) of karma. The Theravda maintained that they are notnot, apparently because there is no causal relation between the two, but because they wished to reserve the term vipka strictly for mental results--"subjective phenomena arising through the effects of kamma."

In the canonical Theravda view of kamma, "the belief that deeds done or ideas seized at the moment of death are particularly significant."

The Milindapaha, a paracanonical Theravda text, offers some interpretations of karma theory at variance with the orthodox position. In particular, Ngasena allows for the possibility of the transfer of merit to humans and one of the four classes of petas, perhaps in deference to folk belief. Ngasena makes it clear that demerit cannot be transferred. One scholar asserts that the sharing of merit "can be linked to the Vedic rddha, for it was Buddhist practice not to upset existing traditions when well-established custom was not antithetic to Buddhist teaching."

The Petavatthu, which is fully canonical, endorses the transfer of merit even more widely, including the possibility of sharing merit with all petas.

In the Yogcra philosophical tradition, one of the two principal Mahyna schools, the principle of karma was extended considerably. In the Yogcra formulation, all experience without exception is said to result from the ripening of karma.[web 9] Karmic seeds (S. bija) are said to be stored in the "storehouse consciousness" (S. layavijna) until such time as they ripen into experience. The term vsna ("perfuming") is also used, and Yogcrins debated whether vsna and bija were essentially the same, the seeds were the effect of the perfuming, or whether the perfuming simply affected the seeds. The seemingly external world is merely a "by-product" (adhipati-phala) of karma. The conditioning of the mind resulting from karma is called saskra.[web 10]

The Treatise on Action (Karmasiddhiprakaraa), also by Vasubandhu, treats the subject of karma in detail from the Yogcra perspective. According to scholar Dan Lusthaus,

Vasubandhu's Viatik (Twenty Verses) repeatedly emphasizes in a variety of ways that karma is intersubjective and that the course of each and every stream of consciousness (vijna-santna, i.e., the changing individual) is profoundly influenced by its relations with other consciousness streams.

According to Bronkhorst, whereas in earlier systems it "was not clear how a series of completely mental events (the deed and its traces) could give rise to non-mental, material effects," with the (purported) idealism of the Yogcra system this is not an issue.

In Mahyna traditions, karma is not the sole basis of rebirth. The rebirths of bodhisattvas after the seventh stage (S. bhmi) are said to be consciously directed for the benefit of others still trapped in sasra. Thus, theirs are not uncontrolled rebirths.

Ngrjuna articulated the difficulty in forming a karma theory in his most prominent work, the Mlamadhyamakakrik (Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way):

If (the act) lasted till the time of ripening, (the act) would be eternal. If (the act) were terminated, how could the terminated produce a fruit?[subnote 3]

The Mlamadhyamakavtty-Akutobhay, also generally attributed to Ngrjuna, concludes that it is impossible both for the act to persist somehow and also for it to perish immediately and still have efficacy at a later time.[note 18]

In Tibetan Buddhism, the teachings on karma belong to the preliminary teachings, that turn the mind towards the Buddhist dharma.

In the Vajrayana tradition, negative past karma may be "purified" through such practices as meditation on Vajrasattva because they both are the mind's psychological phenomenon. The performer of the action, after having purified the karma, does not experience the negative results he or she otherwise would have. Engaging in the ten negative actions out of selfishness and delusions hurts all involved. Otherwise, loving others, receives love; whereas; people with closed hearts may be prevented from happiness. One good thing about karma is that it can be purified through confession, if the thoughts become positive. Within Guru Yoga seven branch offerings practice, confession is the antidote to aversion.

Dgen Kigen argued in his Shobogenzo that karmic latencies are emphatically not empty, going so far as to claim that belief in the emptiness of karma should be characterized as "non-Buddhist," although he also states that the "law of karman has no concrete existence."

Zen's most famous koan about karma is called Baizhang's Wild Fox (). The story of the koan is about an ancient Zen teacher whose answer to a question presents a wrong view about karma by saying that the person who has a foundation in cultivating the great practice "does not fall into cause and effect." Because of his unskillful answer the teacher reaps the result of living 500 lives as a wild fox. He is then able to appear as a human and ask the same question to Zen teacher Baizhang, who answers, "He is not in the dark about cause and effect." Hearing this answer the old teacher is freed from the life of a wild fox. The Zen perspective avoids the duality of asserting that an enlightened person is either subject to or free from the law of karma and that the key is not being ignorant about karma.

The Japanese Tendai/Pure Land teacher Genshin taught a series of ten reflections for a dying person that emphasized reflecting on the Amida Buddha as a means to purify vast amounts of karma.[relevant? discuss]

Buddhist modernists often prefer to equate karma with social conditioning, in contradistinction with, as one scholar puts it, "early texts [which] give us little reason to interpret 'conditioning' as the infusion into the psyche of external social norms, or of awakening as simply transcending all psychological conditioning and social roles. Karmic conditioning drifts semantically toward 'cultural conditioning' under the influence of western discourses that elevate the individual over the social, cultural, and institutional. The traditional import of the karmic conditioning process, however, is primarily ethical and soteriologicalactions condition circumstances in this and future lives."

Essentially, this understanding limits the scope of the traditional understanding of karmic effects so that it encompasses only saskrashabits, dispositions and tendenciesand not external effects, while at the same time expanding the scope to include social conditioning that does not particularly involve volitional action.

Some western commentators and Buddhists have taken exception to aspects of karma theory, and have proposed revisions of various kinds. These proposals fall under the rubric of Buddhist modernism.

The "primary critique" of the Buddhist doctrine of karma is that some feel "karma may be socially and politically disempowering in its cultural effect, that without intending to do this, karma may in fact support social passivity or acquiescence in the face of oppression of various kinds." Dale S. Wright, a scholar specializing in Zen Buddhism, has proposed that the doctrine be reformulated for modern people, "separated from elements of supernatural thinking," so that karma is asserted to condition only personal qualities and dispositions rather than rebirth and external occurrences.

Loy argues that the idea of accumulating merit too easily becomes "spirtitual materialism," a view echoed by other Buddhist modernists,[note 19] and further that karma has been used to rationalize racism, caste, economic oppression, birth handicaps and everything else.

Loy goes on to argue that the view that suffering such as that undergone by Holocaust victims could be attributed in part to the karmic ripenings of those victims is "fundamentalism, which blames the victims and rationalizes their horrific fate," and that this is "something no longer to be tolerated quietly. It is time for modern Buddhists and modern Buddhism to outgrow it" by revising or discarding the teachings on karma.

Other scholars have argued, however, that the teachings on karma do not encourage judgment and blame, given that the victims were not the same people who committed the acts, but rather were just part of the same mindstream-continuum with the past actors, and that the teachings on karma instead provide "a thoroughly satisfying explanation for suffering and loss" in which believers take comfort.

Subnotes

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THE TRAINING

The 200-hour PachaMama Yoga Teacher Training bridges Hatha yoga with Shaolin energetic arts, creating a foundation for a holistic approach to the path of healing and empowerment. Breaking the boundaries of traditional Hatha yoga, this training combines the wisdom of the yoga lineage with contemporary understanding of the body, emotional system, and spiritual practices. This training serves as a platform for self-inquiry, deepened body perception, and ignites a process of genuine transformation.

The union of contemporary healing modalities woven within these ancient forms, deepens the experience of what yoga truly is an art of living, with the clear intention to know oneself and align with truth.

In addition to techniques and training of asana, pranayama,anatomy / physiology, teaching methodology, and yoga philosophy otheraspects of the training will include:

Various forms of healing practices are used in this training to awaken authentic expression and connection to the inner landscape. This exploratory work includes:

The deeper aspects of this training initiates a personal movement exploration that reveals the bodys mysteries. These profound tools activate a deeper understanding of the bodys innate wisdom, allowing one to become more embodied within the yoga practice.

This in-depth training is much more than a yoga experience. It is the path of yoga weaved within deep transformational healing work, earth rituals, community, movement culture and the garden of silence.

Itsupports the shift towards embracing life with awareness, acceptance of oneself, the recognition of oneness and reverence for the earth.

One exclusive aspect of this training is that it is held in PachaMama. This 200-hour Yoga Alliance certified residential training will be supported by the unique expression of village life and the inspiration of a vibrant spiritual community where people meet life in an authentic and sacred way.

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Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness.[1] It is performed for various reasons, including increasing growth and development, preventing aging, strengthening muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, and also enjoyment. Frequent and regular physical exercise boosts the immune system and helps prevent certain "diseases of affluence" such as coronary heart disease,[2] type 2 diabetes,[3] and obesity. It may also help prevent stress and depression, increase quality of sleep and act as a non-pharmaceutical sleep aid to treat diseases such as insomnia, help promote or maintain positive self-esteem, improve mental health, maintain steady digestion and treat constipation and gas, regulate fertility health, and augment an individual's sex appeal or body image.[4][5] Childhood obesity is a growing global concern,[6] and physical exercise may help decrease some of the effects of childhood and adult obesity. Some care-providers call exercise the "miracle" or "wonder" drugalluding to the wide variety of benefits that it can provide for many individuals.[7][8] Aside from the health advantages, these benefits may include different social rewards for staying active while enjoying the environment of one's culture. Many individuals choose to exercise publicly outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and appreciate life.[9]

In the United Kingdom two to four hours of light activity are recommended during working hours.[10] This includes walking and standing.[10] In the United States, a 1995 CDC/ACSM consensus statement and a Surgeon General's 1996 report state that every adult should participate in moderate exercise, such as walking, swimming, and household tasks, for a minimum of 30 minutes daily.[11]

Physical exercises are generally grouped into three types, depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:[12]

Physical exercise can also include training that focuses on accuracy, agility, power, and speed.[16]

Sometimes the terms 'dynamic' and 'static' are used.[citation needed] 'Dynamic' exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the diastolic blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise (such as weight-lifting) can cause the systolic pressure to rise significantly (during the exercise).[17]

Physical exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and can contribute to maintaining a healthy weight, regulating digestive health, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the overall quality of life.[19] People who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active.[20] Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging by reducing inflammatory potential.[21] The majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes per week.[22] For example, climbing stairs 10 minutes, vacuuming 15 minutes, gardening 20 minutes, running 20 minutes, and walking or bicycling for transportation 25 minutes on a daily basis would together achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week.[22] A lack of physical activity causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer and 10% of colon cancer worldwide.[23] Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide.[23]

Individuals can increase fitness following increases in physical activity levels.[24] Increases in muscle size from resistance training is primarily determined by diet and testosterone.[25] This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population.[26][27] Studies have shown that exercising in middle age leads to better physical ability later in life.[28]

Early motor skills and development have also shown to be related to physical activity and performance later in life. Children that have more proficient motor skills early on are more inclined to being physically active, and thus tend to perform well in sports and have better fitness levels. Early motor proficiency has a positive correlation to childhood physical activity and fitness levels, while less proficiency in motor skills results in a tendency to partake in a more sedentary lifestyle. [29]

The beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. There is a direct correlation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular mortality, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease. Low levels of physical exercise increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases mortality.[30]

Children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness.[31] Studies have shown that academic stress in youth increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in later years; however, these risks can be greatly decreased with regular physical exercise.[32] There is a dose-response relation between the amount of exercise performed from approximately 7002000kcal of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly populations. The greatest potential for reduced mortality is in the sedentary who become moderately active. Studies have shown that since heart disease is the leading cause of death in women, regular exercise in aging women leads to healthier cardiovascular profiles. Most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (4060% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age). Persons who modify their behavior after myocardial infarction to include regular exercise have improved rates of survival. Persons who remain sedentary have the highest risk for all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality.[33] According to the American Heart Association, exercise reduces blood pressure, LDL and total cholesterol, and body weight. It increases HDL cholesterol, insulin sensitivity, and exercise tolerance.[11]

Although there have been hundreds of studies on physical exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness. Epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human immune system; an effect which is modeled in a J curve. Moderate exercise has been associated with a 29% decreased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of infection occurrence. However, another study did not find the effect. Immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, and some studies have found that athletes are at a higher risk for infections. Studies have shown that strenuous stress for long durations, such as training for a marathon, can suppress the immune system by decreasing the concentration of lymphocytes.[34] The immune systems of athletes and nonathletes are generally similar. Athletes may have slightly elevated natural killer cell count and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant.[35]

Vitamin C supplementation has been associated with lower incidence of URTIs in marathon runners.[35]

Biomarkers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein, which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals, and the positive effects of exercise may be due to its anti-inflammatory effects. In individuals with heart disease, exercise interventions lower blood levels of fibrinogen and C-reactive protein, an important cardiovascular risk marker.[36] The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.[35]

A systematic review evaluated 45 studies that examined the relationship between physical activity and cancer survivorship. According to the study results "There was consistent evidence from 27 observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced all-cause, breast cancerspecific, and colon cancerspecific mortality".[37]

Physical exercise was correlated with a lower methylation frequency of two tumor suppressor genes, CACNA2D3 and L3MBTL.[38][39] Hypermethylation of CACNA2D3 is associated with gastric cancer, while hypermethylation of L3MBTL is associated with breast cancer, brain tumors and hematological malignancies.[38][39][40][41] A recent study indicates that exercise results in reduced DNA methylation at CpG sites on genes associated with breast cancer.[42]

Physical exercise is becoming a widely accepted non-pharmacological intervention for the prevention and attenuation of cancer cachexia.[43] "Cachexia is a multiorganic syndrome associated with cancer, characterized by inflammation, body weight loss (at least 5%) and muscle and adipose tissue wasting".[44] Exercise triggers the activation of the transcriptional coactivator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 (PGC-1), which suppresses FoxO- and NF-B-dependent gene transcription during muscle atrophy that is induced by fasting or denervation; thus, PGC-1 may be a key intermediate responsible for the beneficial antiatrophic effects of physical exercise on cancer cachexia.[45][46] The exercise-induced isoform PGC-14, which can repress myostatin and induce IGF1 and hypertrophy, is a potential drug target for treatment of cancer cachexia.[47] Other factors, such as JUNB and SIRT1, that maintain skeletal muscle mass and promote hypertrophy are also induced with regular physical exercise.[48][49]

The neurobiological effects of physical exercise are numerous and involve a wide range of interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and cognition.[50][51][52][53] A large body of research in humans has demonstrated that consistent aerobic exercise (e.g., 30minutes every day) induces persistent improvements in certain cognitive functions, healthy alterations in gene expression in the brain, and beneficial forms of neuroplasticity and behavioral plasticity; some of these long-term effects include: increased neuron growth, increased neurological activity (e.g., c-Fos and BDNF signaling), improved stress coping, enhanced cognitive control of behavior, improved declarative, spatial, and working memory, and structural and functional improvements in brain structures and pathways associated with cognitive control and memory.[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59] The effects of exercise on cognition have important implications for improving academic performance in children and college students, improving adult productivity, preserving cognitive function in old age, preventing or treating certain neurological disorders, and improving overall quality of life.[50][60][61]

In healthy adults, aerobic exercise has been shown to induce transient effects on cognition after a single exercise session and persistent effects on cognition following regular exercise over the course of several months.[50][59][62] People who regularly perform aerobic exercise (e.g., running, jogging, brisk walking, swimming, and cycling) have greater scores on neuropsychological function and performance tests that measure certain cognitive functions, such as attentional control, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory updating and capacity, declarative memory, spatial memory, and information processing speed.[50][54][56][58][59][62] The transient effects of exercise on cognition include improvements in most executive functions (e.g., attention, working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, problem solving, and decision making) and information processing speed for a period of up to 2hours after exercising.[62]

Aerobic exercise induces short- and long-term effects on mood and emotional states by promoting positive affect, inhibiting negative affect, and decreasing the biological response to acute psychological stress.[62] Over the short-term, aerobic exercise functions as both an antidepressant and euphoriant,[63][64][65][66] whereas consistent exercise produces general improvements in mood and self-esteem.[67][68]

Regular aerobic exercise improves symptoms associated with a variety of central nervous system disorders and may be used as an adjunct therapy for these disorders. There is clear evidence of exercise treatment efficacy for major depressive disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.[60][65][69][70][71][72] The American Academy of Neurology's clinical practice guideline for mild cognitive impairment indicates that clinicians should recommend regular exercise (two times per week) to individuals who have been diagnosed with this condition.[73] Reviews of clinical evidence also support the use of exercise as an adjunct therapy for certain neurodegenerative disorders, particularly Alzheimers disease and Parkinson's disease.[74][75][76][77][78][79] Regular exercise is also associated with a lower risk of developing neurodegenerative disorders.[77][80] A large body of preclinical evidence and emerging clinical evidence supports the use of exercise therapy for treating and preventing the development of drug addictions.[81][82][83][84][85] Regular exercise has also been proposed as an adjunct therapy for brain cancers.[86]

A number of medical reviews have indicated that exercise has a marked and persistent antidepressant effect in humans,[54][65][66][69][87][88] an effect believed to be mediated through enhanced BDNF signaling in the brain.[57][69] Several systematic reviews have analyzed the potential for physical exercise in the treatment of depressive disorders. The 2013 Cochrane Collaboration review on physical exercise for depression noted that, based upon limited evidence, it is more effective than a control intervention and comparable to psychological or antidepressant drug therapies.[87] Three subsequent 2014 systematic reviews that included the Cochrane review in their analysis concluded with similar findings: one indicated that physical exercise is effective as an adjunct treatment (i.e., treatments that are used together) with antidepressant medication;[69] the other two indicated that physical exercise has marked antidepressant effects and recommended the inclusion of physical activity as an adjunct treatment for mildmoderate depression and mental illness in general.[65][66] One systematic review noted that yoga may be effective in alleviating symptoms of prenatal depression.[89] Another review asserted that evidence from clinical trials supports the efficacy of physical exercise as a treatment for depression over a 24month period.[54]

A 2015 review of clinical evidence which included a medical guideline for the treatment of depression with exercise noted that the available evidence on the effectiveness of exercise therapy for depression suffers from some limitations;[70] nonetheless, it stated that there is clear evidence of efficacy for reducing symptoms of depression.[70] The review also noted that patient characteristics, the type of depressive disorder, and the nature of the exercise program all affect the antidepressant properties of exercise therapy.[70] A meta-analysis from July 2016 concluded that physical exercise improves overall quality of life in individuals with depression relative to controls.[60]

Continuous aerobic exercise can induce a transient state of euphoria, colloquially known as a "runner's high" in distance running or a "rower's high" in crew, through the increased biosynthesis of at least three euphoriant neurochemicals: anandamide (an endocannabinoid),[90] -endorphin (an endogenous opioid),[91] and phenethylamine (a trace amine and amphetamine analog).[92][93][94]

A 2010 review of published scientific research suggested that exercise generally improves sleep for most people, and helps sleep disorders such as insomnia. The optimum time to exercise may be 4 to 8 hours before bedtime, though exercise at any time of day is beneficial, with the possible exception of heavy exercise taken shortly before bedtime, which may disturb sleep. There is, in any case, insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep.[95]

According to a 2005 study, exercise is the most recommended alternative to sleeping pills for resolving insomnia. Sleeping pills are more costly than to make time for a daily routine of staying fit, and may have dangerous side effects in the long run. Exercise can be a healthy, safe and inexpensive way to achieve more and better sleep.[96]

Too much exercise can be harmful. Without proper rest, the chance of stroke or other circulation problems increases,[97] and muscle tissue may develop slowly. Extremely intense, long-term cardiovascular exercise, as can be seen in athletes who train for multiple marathons, has been associated with scarring of the heart and heart rhythm abnormalities.[98][99][100] Specifically, high cardiac output has been shown to cause enlargement of the left and right ventricle volumes, increased ventricle wall thickness, and greater cardiac mass. These changes further result in myocardial cell damage in the lining of the heart, leading to scar tissue and thickened walls. During these processes, the protein troponin increases in the bloodstream, indicating cardiac muscle cell death and increased stress on the heart itself.[101]

Inappropriate exercise can do more harm than good, with the definition of inappropriate varying according to the individual. For many activities, especially running and cycling, there are significant injuries that occur with poorly regimented exercise schedules. Injuries from accidents also remain a major concern,[102] whereas the effects of increased exposure to air pollution seem only a minor concern.[103][104]

In extreme instances, over-exercising induces serious performance loss. Unaccustomed overexertion of muscles leads to rhabdomyolysis (damage to muscle) most often seen in new army recruits.[105] Another danger is overtraining, in which the intensity or volume of training exceeds the body's capacity to recover between bouts. One sign of Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) is suppressed immune function, with an increased incidence of upper respiratory tract infection (URTI). An increased incidence of URTIs is also associated with high volume/intensity training, as well as with excessive exercise (EE), such as in a marathon.[106] Marathon training requires the runner to build their intensity week to week which makes them more susceptible to injury the more they increase their mileage. A study shows that in the last 1015 years up to 90% of marathon runners have suffered a physical injury from their training.[107]

Stopping excessive exercise suddenly may create a change in mood. Exercise should be controlled by each body's inherent limitations. While one set of joints and muscles may have the tolerance to withstand multiple marathons, another body may be damaged by 20 minutes of light jogging. This must be determined for each individual.

Too much exercise may cause a woman to miss her periods, a symptom known as amenorrhea.[108] This is a very serious condition which indicates a woman is pushing her body beyond its natural boundaries.[109]

Not only can excessive exercise cause physical damage, it can also cause psychological damage. Every athlete strives for perfection in their sport. This is what may begin their excessive exercising regime. If an athlete fails in this quest for perfection, this could result in anxiety, depression and low-self esteem. A study of 179 athletes, all of whom were Olympians or potential Olympians, was carried out in 2002 to find a relationship between perfectionism and sport-related competitive anxiety. It was found that athletes with lower selfesteem had higher personal standards and in comparison, those with high self-esteem had little concern in making mistakes or doubting themselves.[110]

Resistance training and subsequent consumption of a protein-rich meal promotes muscle hypertrophy and gains in muscle strength by stimulating myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown (MPB).[111][112] The stimulation of muscle protein synthesis by resistance training occurs via phosphorylation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and subsequent activation of mTORC1, which leads to protein biosynthesis in the ribosome via phosphorylation of mTORC1's immediate targets (the p70S6 kinase and the translation repressor protein 4EBP1).[111][113] The suppression of muscle protein breakdown following food consumption occurs primarily via increases in plasma insulin;[111][114] however, a suppression of MPB of comparable magnitude has also been shown to occur in humans from a sufficient elevation of plasma -hydroxy -methylbutyric acid.[111][114][115]

Aerobic exercise induces mitochondrial biogenesis and an increased capacity for oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria of skeletal muscle, which is one mechanism by which aerobic exercise enhances submaximal endurance performance.[111][116] These effects occur via an exercise-induced increase in the intracellular AMP:ATP ratio, thereby triggering the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) which subsequently phosphorylates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 (PGC-1), the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis.[111][116][117]

Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and multiple anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.[131] Exercise reduces levels of cortisol, which causes many health problems, both physical and mental.[132] Endurance exercise before meals lowers blood glucose more than the same exercise after meals.[133] There is evidence that vigorous exercise (9095% of VO2 max) induces a greater degree of physiological cardiac hypertrophy than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO2 max), but it is unknown whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and/or mortality.[134] Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). Ventricular hypertrophy, the thickening of the ventricular walls, is generally beneficial and healthy if it occurs in response to exercise.

The persistent long-term neurobiological effects of regular physical exercise[note 1] are believed to be mediated by transient exercise-induced increases in the concentration of neurotrophic factors (e.g., BDNF, IGF-1, VEGF, and GDNF) and other biomolecules in peripheral blood plasma, which subsequently cross the bloodbrain barrier and bloodcerebrospinal fluid barrier and bind to their associated receptors in the brain.[51][67][135][136] Upon binding to their receptors in cerebral vasculature and brain cells (i.e., neurons and glial cells), these biomolecules trigger intracellular signaling cascades that lead to neuroplastic biological responses such as neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, oligodendrogenesis, and angiogenesis, among others which ultimately mediate the exercise-induced improvements in cognitive function.[51][54][135][137][138]

Multiple component community-wide campaigns are frequently used in an attempt to increase a population's level of physical activity. A 2015 Cochrane review, however, did not find evidence supporting a benefit.[139] The quality of the underlying evidence was also poor.[139] However, there is some evidence that school-based interventions can increase activity levels and fitness in children.[24] Another Cochrane review found some evidence that certain types of exercise programmes, such as those involving gait, balance, co-ordination and functional tasks, can improve balance in older adults.[140] Following progressive resistance training, older adults also respond with improved physical function.[141] Survey of brief interventions promoting physical activity found that they are cost-effective, although there are variations between studies.[142]

Environmental approaches appear promising: signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, may increase exercise levels.[143] The city of Bogot, Colombia, for example, blocks off 113 kilometers (70mi) of roads on Sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. These pedestrian zones are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases.[144]

To identify which public health strategies are effective, a Cochrane overview of reviews is in preparation.[145]

Physical exercise was said to decrease healthcare costs, increase the rate of job attendance, as well as increase the amount of effort women put into their jobs.[146]

Children will mimic the behavior of their parents in relation to physical exercise. Parents can thus promote physical activity and limit the amount of time children spend in front of screens.[147]

Overweight children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States, both children and adults should do 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day.[148] Implementing physical exercise in the school system and ensuring an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle is essential.

The European Commission - DG EAC - Directorate General for Education and Culture - has dedicated programs and funds for HEPA - Health Enhancing Physical Activity projects[149] within its Horizon 2020 and Erasmus+ program, as research showed that too many Europeans are not physically active enough. Financing is available for increased collaboration between players active in this field across the EU and around the world, the promotion of HEPA in the EU and its partner countries and the European Sports Week. The DG EAC regularly publishes a Eurobarometer on sport and physical activity.

Worldwide there has been a large shift towards less physically demanding work.[150] This has been accompanied by increasing use of mechanized transportation, a greater prevalence of labor saving technology in the home, and fewer active recreational pursuits.[150] Personal lifestyle changes however can correct the lack of physical exercise.

Research in 2015 indicates integrating mindfulness to physical exercise interventions increases exercise adherence, self-efficacy and also has positive effects both psychologically and physiologically.[151]

Exercising looks different in every country, as do the motivations behind exercising.[9] In some countries, people exercise primarily indoors, and in others, people exercise primarily outdoors. People may exercise for personal enjoyment, health and well-being, social interactions, competition or training, etc. These differences could potentially be attributed to geographic location, social tendencies, or otherwise.

In Colombia, citizens value and celebrate the outdoor environments of their country. In many instances, they utilize outdoor activities as social gatherings to enjoy nature and their communities. In Bogot, Colombia, a 70-mile stretch of road known as the Ciclova is shut down each Sunday for bicyclists, runners, rollerbladers, skateboarders and other exercisers to work out and enjoy their surroundings.[152]

Similarly to Colombia, citizens of Cambodia tend to exercise socially outside. In this country, public gyms have become quite popular. People will congregate at these outdoor gyms not only to utilize the public facilities, but also to organize aerobics and dance sessions, which are open to the public.[153]

Sweden has also begun developing outdoor gyms, called utegym. These gyms are free to the public and are often placed in beautiful, picturesque environments. People will swim in rivers, use boats, and run through forests to stay healthy and enjoy the natural world around them. This is especially possible in Sweden due to its geographical location.[154]

Chinese exercise, particularly in the retired community, seems to be socially grounded. In the mornings, dances are held in public parks; these gatherings may include Latin dancing, ballroom dancing, tango, or even the jitterbug. Dancing in public allows people to interact with those with whom they would not normally interact, allowing for both health benefits and social benefits.[155]

These sociocultural variations in physical exercise show how people in different geographic locations and social climates have varying motivations and methods of exercising. Physical exercise can improve health and well-being, as well as enhance community ties and appreciation of natural beauty.[9]

Proper nutrition is as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of macronutrients while providing ample micronutrients, in order to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise.[156]

Active recovery is recommended after participating in physical exercise because it removes lactate from the blood more quickly than inactive recovery. Removing lactate from circulation allows for an easy decline in body temperature, which can also benefit the immune system, as an individual may be vulnerable to minor illnesses if the body temperature drops too abruptly after physical exercise.[157]

The benefits of exercise have been known since antiquity. Dating back to 65 BCE, it was Marcus Cicero, Roman politician and lawyer, who stated: "It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor."[158] Exercise was also seen to be valued later in history during the Dark Ages as a means of survival by the barbaric tribes of Northern Europe.[159]

More recently, exercise was regarded as a beneficial force in the 19th century. After 1860, Archibald MacLaren opened a gymnasium at the University of Oxford and instituted a training regimen for 12 military officials at the university. This regimen was later assimilated into the training of the British Army.[160] Several mass exercise movements were started in the early twentieth century as well. The first and most significant of these in the UK was the Women's League of Health and Beauty, founded in 1930 by Mary Bagot Stack, that had 166,000 members in 1937.[161]

However, the link between physical health and exercise (or lack of it) was only discovered in 1949 and reported in 1953 by a team led by Jerry Morris.[162][163] Dr. Morris noted that men of similar social class and occupation (bus conductors versus bus drivers) had markedly different rates of heart attacks, depending on the level of exercise they got: bus drivers had a sedentary occupation and a higher incidence of heart disease, while bus conductors were forced to move continually and had a lower incidence of heart disease.[163] This link had not previously been noted and was later confirmed by other researchers.

Physical exercise has been shown to benefit a wide range of other mammals, as well as salmon, juvenile crocodiles, and at least one species of bird.[164]

However, several studies have shown that lizards display no benefit from exercise, leading them to be termed "metabolically inflexible".[165] Indeed, damage from overtraining may occur following weeks of forced treadmill exercise in lizards.[165]

A number of studies of both rodents and humans have demonstrated that individual differences in both ability and propensity for exercise (i.e., voluntary exercise) have some genetic basis.[166][167]

Several studies of rodents have demonstrated that maternal[168] or juvenile access to wheels that allow voluntary exercise can increase the propensity to run as adults.[169] These studies further suggest that physical activity may be more "programmable" (for discussion, see Thrifty phenotype) than food intake.[170]

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Physical exercise - Wikipedia

How I understand the philosopher -- as a terribleexplosive, endangering everthing... my concept of the philosopheris worlds removed from any concept that would include even a Kant,not to speak of academic "ruminants" and other professors ofphilosophy...

from Nietzsche's Ecce Homo, s 3.2.3, WalterKaufmann transl.

Knapsack of the Metaphysicians.-- Those whoboast so mightily of the scientificality of their metaphysicsshould receive no answer; it is enough to pluck at the bundlewhich, with a certain degree of embarrassment, they keep concealedbehind their back; if one succeeds in opening it, the products ofthat scientificality come to light, attended by their blushes: adear little Lord God, a nice little immortality, perhaps a certainquantity of spiritualism, and in any event a whole tangled heap of'wretched poor sinner' and Pharisee arrogance.

from Nietzsche's Assorted Opinions andMaxims,s. 12, R.J. Hollingdale transl.

Even today many educated people think that thevictory of Christianity over Greek philosophy is a proof of thesuperior truth of the former - although in this case it was onlythe coarser and more violent that conquered the more spiritual anddelicate. So far as superior truth is concerned, it is enough toobserve that the awakening sciences have allied themselves point bypoint with the philosophy of Epicurus, but point by point rejectedChristianity.

from Nietzsche's Human, all too Human, s.68,R.J. Hollingdale transl.

Socrates.-- If all goes well, the time willcome when one will take up the memorabilia of Socrates rather thanthe Bible as a guide to morals and reason... The pathways of themost various philosophical modes of life lead back to him...Socrates excels the founder of Christianity in being able to beserious cheerfully and in possessing that wisdom full ofroguishness that constitutes the finest state of the humansoul. And he also possessed the finer intellect.

from Nietzsche's The Wanderer and hisShadow,s. 86, R.J. Hollingdale transl.

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Nietzsche Quotes: Philosophy

Youll find a peaceful retreat from the everyday at our quiet yoga center at the Baba Siri Chand Ashram. A peaceful meditation pagoda is nestled in the midst of a bamboo forest and rock garden surrounded by inspiring sculptures. Breathe deeply in this quiet space as you pass the bubbling fountain and then enter our beautiful 1,000 sqft yoga room. Look carefully at the walls to see the beauty of the hand-painted murals filled with inspiring images and mantras.

Our top notch Kundalini Yoga teachers will leave you floating after a class and our Hatha and Vinyasa teachers will stretch and challenge you find that peaceful place within. Come experience the evening meditation classes, weekend workshops and vegetarian cooking classes. Look around to find information about our classes, teachers and practices. Give us a call if you have any questions, we welcome students of all levels.

Monday: 7:30pm-8:30pm: Hatha Yoga,Tuesday: 10:30am-12:00pm: Kundalini Yoga / 7:30pm-9:00pm: Kundalini YogaWednesday: 10:30am-12:00pm: Kundalini Yoga / 7:30pm-9pm: Kundalini YogaThursday: 10:30am-12:00pm: Kundalini Yoga/ 7:30pm-9pm: Kundalini YogaFriday: 10:30am-12:00pm: Kundalini YogaSaturday: 10:30am-12:00pm: Kundalini Yoga

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The Kundalini Yoga Center | The Kundalini Yoga Center

Self-Improvement - Free Books at EBDBreak The Rules: 50 Smashing Ways To Be More Creativeby James Hegarty - Smashwords , 2015Hegarty's detailed analysis provides a foundation for the development of individual creativity. Break The Rules is a loud and effective call to anyone to be more creative. The book gives anyone the tools and confidence to be more creative right away.(550 views)Your Life: The Popular Guide to Desirable Livingby Wilfred Funk - The Kingsway press, inc. , 1937Your greatest asset in the world is your personality. The rich man is unhappy because of the lack of it; the poor man is convinced he would make good if he possessed it. Women realize its golden value, for it more than compensates for any handicap.(1264 views)Productivity for Creative Peopleby Mark McGuinness - Smashwords , 2016If you're excited by the opportunities of the creative age, but worried about the effect of all those interruptions and digital distractions on your creative work, 'Productivity for Creative People' has been written for you.(1018 views)Mind Hackingby John Hargrave - mindhacki.ng , 2015Have you ever wished you could reprogram your brain, just as a hacker would a computer? In this 3-step guide to improving your mental habits, learn to take charge of your mind and banish negative thoughts, habits, and anxiety -- in just 21 days.(3190 views)How to Overcome Procrastinationby Paul Newton - Bookboon , 2014This book provides practical and usable tactics that control and overcome one's tendency to procrastinate. It helps you to identify which of the seven triggers cause you to put off important tasks. You can also pass on these tactics to help others.(1793 views)The Creative Edge: The Art of Making Ideas Workby James Hegarty - Smashwords , 2014How to discover extraordinary ideas and bring them into reality. This book explains creativity as a practical process - the methods and abilities - that applies to any discovery and development situation. It's practical, hip, and entirely real-world.(5054 views)The 25-Hour Dayby Jenna Meyerson - Bookboon , 2013This manual gives practical tips and instructions to help you understand time management. You will discover how to utilise the technology available to you, how to make the most of your own productive cycles, and how to make your life more efficient.(2858 views)Emotional Intelligenceby MTD Training - BookBoon , 2010This textbook introduces readers to what Emotional Intelligence is and how they can improve their own. Being 'bright' is not enough in today's modern society. You need to understand how to manage your emotions and those of others to get on.(5856 views)How to Analyze People on Sightby E. L. Benedict, R. P. Benedict - Roycrofters , 1921The fundamental traits of every individual are stamped in the shape of his body, head, face and hands. From this book you will learn which type of car you are and the main reasons why you have not been getting the maximum of service out of yourself.(8640 views)The Science of Getting Richby Wallace Delois Wattles , 1910The book is about getting rich - not only in terms of money but in every possible way, including relationships and health. The book is quite short and the language is simple. The author doesn't get into philosophies or theories.(20021 views)How to Make a Complete Map of Every Thought you Thinkby Lion Kimbro , 2003This book is about how to make a complete map of everything you think for as long as you like. Keeping a map of all your thoughts has a freezing effect on the mind. It takes a lot of (albeit pleasurable) work, but produces nothing but SIGHT.(11670 views)Interesting pagesMore sites like thisFollow us 2008 - 2018 by E-Books Directory

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Self-Improvement - Free Books at EBD - E-Books Directory

Healing is one of the Greatest Acts of Divine Service

For those who are committed to deepening their spiritual growth and to helping others heal, The Direct Divine Light Healing Program is a two-year certification training in Direct Divine Light Healing, a full-spectrum aura therapy and one of the most dynamic and effective spiritual healing modalities. This program empowers you to help others to heal and accelerate your spiritual growth by deepening your own direct connection to the Divine.

Second in the Institutes three-level training, this program trains students in the sacred art of administering of Divine Light to others, and how to build up their own healing power to be able to facilitate the exhilarated healing currents. Regardless if the goal is to become a professional healer, this program will take participants to greater spiritual heights and exhilarate their Divine unfoldment.

Ideal for doctors, holistic practitioners, massage therapists, and nurses who wish to enhance their healing skills or anyone who wishes to delve deeply into their spiritual nature. A certificate is awarded on completion.

Offered by invitation only. Prerequisite: Certification in Seven Spiritual Arts Training Program.

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Direct Divine Light Healing Program | Spiritual Arts Institute

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