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City metropolis in Masovia, Poland

City metropolis in Masovia, Poland

Warsaw

Warszawa

Paris of the North, Phoenix City

Location within Poland

Location within Europe

(30 June 2018)

00-001 to 04999

Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa [varava] (listen); see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the Vistula River in east-central Poland and its population is officially estimated at 1.770million residents within a greater metropolitan area of 3.1million residents,[4] which makes Warsaw the 8th most-populous capital city in the European Union. The city limits cover 516.9 square kilometres (199.6sqmi), while the metropolitan area covers 6,100.43 square kilometres (2,355.39sqmi).[5] Warsaw is an alpha global city,[6] a major international tourist destination, and a significant cultural, political and economic hub. Its historical Old Town was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Once described as the 'Paris of the North', Warsaw was believed to be one of the most beautiful cities in the world until World War II.[7] Bombed at the start of the German invasion in 1939, the city withstood a siege for which it was later awarded Poland's highest military decoration for heroism, the Virtuti Militari.[8][9][10] Deportations of the Jewish population to concentration camps led to the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943 and the destruction of the Ghetto after a month of combat. A general Warsaw Uprising between August and October 1944 led to even greater devastation and systematic razing by the Germans in advance of the VistulaOder Offensive. Warsaw gained the new title of Phoenix City because of its extensive history and complete reconstruction after World War II, which had left over 85% of its buildings in ruins.[11][12]

Warsaw is one of Europe's most dynamic metropolitan cities.[13] In 2012 the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Warsaw as the 32nd most liveable city in the world.[14] In 2017 the city came 4th in the "Business-friendly" category and 8th in "Human capital and life style".[13] It was also ranked as one of the most liveable cities in Central and Eastern Europe.

The city is a significant centre of research and development, Business process outsourcing, Information technology outsourcing, as well as of the Polish media industry. The Warsaw Stock Exchange is the largest and most important in Central and Eastern Europe.[15][16] Frontex, the European Union agency for external border security as well as ODIHR, one of the principal institutions of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe have their headquarters in Warsaw. Together with Frankfurt, London and Paris, Warsaw is also one of the cities with the highest number of skyscrapers in the European Union.[17]

The city is the seat of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra, University of Warsaw, the Warsaw Polytechnic, the National Museum, the Great TheatreNational Opera, the largest of its kind in the world,[18] and the Zachta National Gallery of Art. The picturesque Old Town of Warsaw, which represents examples of nearly every European architectural style and historical period,[19] was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1980. Other main architectural attractions include the Castle Square with the Royal Castle and the iconic King Sigismund's Column, the Wilanw Palace, the azienki Palace, St. John's Cathedral, Main Market Square, palaces, churches and mansions all displaying a richness of colour and detail. Warsaw is positioning itself as Central and Eastern Europes chic cultural capital with thriving art and club scenes and serious restaurants,[20] with around a quarter of the city's area occupied by parks.[21]

Warsaw's name in the Polish language is Warszawa (also formerly spelled Warszewa and Warszowa). Other previous spellings of the name may have included Worszewa and Werszewa.[22][23] According to some sources,[24] the origin of the name is unknown. In Pre-Slavic toponomastic layer of Northern Mazovia: corrections and addenda (the Narew drainage),[25] it is stated that the toponymy of northern Mazovia tends to have unclear etymology (p.30). Originally, Warszawa was the name of a fishing village. According to one theory Warszawa means "belonging to Warsz", Warsz being a shortened form of the masculine name of Slavic origin Warcisaw; see also etymology of Wrocaw.[26] However the ending -awa is unusual for a big city; the names of Polish cities derived from personal names usually ending in -w/owo/ew/ewo (e.g. Piotrkw, Adamw) while the -av- in the early name of Wrocaw is part of a personal name. Folk etymology attributes the city name to a fisherman, Wars, and his wife, Sawa. According to legend, Sawa was a mermaid living in the Vistula River with whom Wars fell in love.[27] In actuality, Warsz was a 12th/13th-century nobleman who owned a village located at the modern-day site of the Mariensztat neighbourhood.[28] See also the Vrovci family which had escaped to Poland. The official city name in full is miasto stoeczne Warszawa ("The Capital City of Warsaw").[29] A native or resident of Warsaw is known as a Varsovian in Polish warszawiak, warszawianin (male), warszawianka (female), warszawiacy, and warszawianie (plural).

Other names for Warsaw include Varsovia (Latin, Spanish) and Varsvia (Portuguese), Varsovie (French), Varsavia (Italian), Warschau (German, Dutch), /Varshe (Yiddish), Varuva (Lithuanian), Vars (Hungarian) and Varava (Czech)

The first fortified settlements on the site of today's Warsaw were located in Brdno (9th/10th century) and Jazdw (12th/13th century).[30] After Jazdw was raided by nearby clans and dukes, a new similar settlement was established on the site of a small fishing village called Warszowa. The Prince of Pock, Bolesaw II of Masovia, established this settlement, the modern-day Warsaw, in about 1300. In the beginning of the 14th century it became one of the seats of the Dukes of Masovia, becoming the official capital of the Masovian Duchy in 1413.[30] 14th-century Warsaw's economy rested on mostly crafts and trade. Upon the extinction of the local ducal line, the duchy was reincorporated into the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland in 1526.[30]

In 1529, Warsaw for the first time became the seat of the General Sejm, permanently from 1569.[30] In 1573 the city gave its name to the Warsaw Confederation, formally establishing religious freedom in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. Due to its central location between the Commonwealth's capitals of Krakw and Vilnius, Warsaw became the capital of the Commonwealth and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland when King Sigismund III Vasa moved his court from Krakw to Warsaw in 1596.[30]In the following years the town expanded towards the suburbs. Several private independent districts were establishedthe property of aristocrats and the gentry, which they ruled by their own laws. Three times between 1655 and 1658 the city was under siege, and three times it was taken and pillaged by the Swedish, Brandenburgian and Transylvanian forces.[30][31]

In 1700, the Great Northern War broke out. The city was besieged several times and was obliged to pay heavy tribute.[32] Warsaw turned into an early-capitalist city. The reign of Augustus II and Augustus III was a time of development for Warsaw. The Saxon monarchs brought many renowned German architects, who rebuilt the city in a style similar to Dresden. In 1747 the Zauski Library was established, the first Polish public library and the largest at the time.[33]

Stanisaw II Augustus, who remodelled the interior of the Royal Castle, also made Warsaw a centre of culture and the arts.[34][35] He extended the Royal Baths Park and ordered the construction or refurbishment of numerous palaces, mansions and richly-decorated tenements. This earned Warsaw the nickname Paris of the East.[36]

Warsaw remained the capital of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth until 1795, when it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in the third and final partition of Poland;[37] it subsequently became the capital of the province of South Prussia.

Liberated by Napoleon's army in 1806, Warsaw was made the capital of the newly created Duchy of Warsaw.[30] Following the Congress of Vienna of 1815, Warsaw became the centre of Congress Poland, a constitutional monarchy under a personal union with Imperial Russia.[30] The Royal University of Warsaw was established in 1816.

Following repeated violations of the Polish constitution by the Russians, the 1830 November uprising broke out. But the Polish-Russian war of 1831 ended in the uprising's defeat and in the curtailment of the Kingdom's autonomy.[30] On 27 February 1861 a Warsaw crowd protesting against Russian rule over Poland was fired upon by Russian troops.[38][39] Five people were killed. The Underground Polish National Government resided in Warsaw during the January Uprising in 186364.[39]

Warsaw flourished in the late 19th century under Mayor Sokrates Starynkiewicz (187592), a Russian-born general appointed by Tsar Alexander III. Under Starynkiewicz Warsaw saw its first water and sewer systems designed and built by the English engineer William Lindley and his son, William Heerlein Lindley, as well as the expansion and modernisation of trams, street lighting, and gas infrastructure.[30]

The Russian Empire Census of 1897 recorded 626,000 people living in Warsaw, making it the third-largest city of the Empire after St. Petersburg and Moscow.[40]

Warsaw was occupied by Germany from 4 August 1915 until November 1918. The Allied Armistice terms required in Article 12 that Germany withdraw from areas controlled by Russia in 1914, which included Warsaw.[41] Germany did so, and underground leader Pisudski returned to Warsaw on 11 November and set up what became the Second Polish Republic, with Warsaw as the capital. In the course of the Polish-Bolshevik War of 1920, the huge Battle of Warsaw was fought on the eastern outskirts of the city in which the capital was successfully defended and the Red Army defeated. Poland stopped the full brunt of the Red Army by itself and defeated the idea of the "export of the revolution".[42]

The history of contemporary civilisation knows no event of greater importance than the Battle of Warsaw, 1920, and none of which the significance is less appreciated ... yet never had Poland's services been greater, never had the danger been more imminent.

The rednicowy Bridge was constructed for a railway (19211931), connecting both parts of the city. Warszawa Gwna railway station (19321939) was unfinished and destroyed during WWII.

Stefan Starzyski was the Mayor of Warsaw 19341939; he was murdered by the Nazis in December 1939.

After the German Invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 started the Second World War, Warsaw was defended until 27 September. Central Poland, including Warsaw, came under the rule of the General Government, a German Nazi colonial administration. All higher education institutions were immediately closed and Warsaw's entire Jewish population several hundred thousand, some 30% of the city were herded into the Warsaw Ghetto.[45] The city would become the centre of urban resistance to Nazi rule in occupied Europe.[46] When the order came to annihilate the ghetto as part of Hitler's "Final Solution" on 19 April 1943, Jewish fighters launched the Warsaw Ghetto uprising.[47] Despite being heavily outgunned and outnumbered, the Ghetto held out for almost a month.[47] When the fighting ended, almost all survivors were massacred, with only a few managing to escape or hide.[47][48]

By July 1944, the Red Army was deep into Polish territory and pursuing the Germans toward Warsaw.[50] Knowing that Stalin was hostile to the idea of an independent Poland, the Polish government-in-exile in London gave orders to the underground Home Army (AK) to try to seize control of Warsaw from the Germans before the Red Army arrived. Thus, on 1 August 1944, as the Red Army was nearing the city, the Warsaw uprising began.[50] The armed struggle, planned to last 48 hours, was partially successful, however it went on for 63 days. Eventually the Home Army fighters and civilians assisting them were forced to capitulate.[50] They were transported to PoW camps in Germany, while the entire civilian population was expelled.[50] Polish civilian deaths are estimated at between 150,000 and 200,000.[51]

The Germans then razed Warsaw to the ground. Hitler, ignoring the agreed terms of the capitulation, ordered the entire city to be razed to the ground and the library and museum collections taken to Germany or burned.[50] Monuments and government buildings were blown up by special German troops known as Verbrennungs- und Vernichtungskommando ("Burning and Destruction Detachments").[50] About 85% of the city had been destroyed, including the historic Old Town and the Royal Castle.[52]

On 17 January 1945 after the beginning of the VistulaOder Offensive of the Red Army Soviet troops and Polish troops of the First Polish Army entered the ruins of Warsaw, and liberated Warsaw's suburbs from German occupation.[53] The city was swiftly taken by the Soviet Army, which rapidly advanced towards d, as German forces regrouped at a more westward position.

In 1945, after the bombings, revolts, fighting, and demolition had ended, most of Warsaw lay in ruins.

After World War II, under a Communist regime set up by the conquering Soviets, the "Bricks for Warsaw" campaign was initiated, and large prefabricated housing projects were erected in Warsaw to address the housing shortage, along with other typical buildings of an Eastern Bloc city, such as the Palace of Culture and Science, a "gift" from the Soviet Union. The city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of political and economic life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches were restored to their original form. In 1980, Warsaw's historic Old Town was inscribed onto UNESCO's World Heritage list.[54]

John Paul II's visits to his native country in 1979 and 1983 brought support to the budding "Solidarity" movement and encouraged the growing anti-communist fervor there.[55] In 1979, less than a year after becoming pope, John Paul celebrated Mass in Victory Square in Warsaw and ended his sermon with a call to "renew the face" of Poland: Let Thy Spirit descend! Let Thy Spirit descend and renew the face of the land! This land![55] These words were very meaningful for the Polish citizens who understood them as the incentive for liberal-democratic reforms.[55]

In 1995, the Warsaw Metro opened with a single line. A second line was opened in March 2015.[56] With the entry of Poland into the European Union in 2004, Warsaw is currently experiencing the largest economic boom of its history.[57] The opening fixture of UEFA Euro 2012 took place in Warsaw, a game in which Poland drew 11 with Greece.[58] Warsaw was the host city for the 2013 United Nations Climate Change Conference and for the 2016 NATO Summit.

Warsaw lies in east-central Poland about 300km (190mi) from the Carpathian Mountains and about 260km (160mi) from the Baltic Sea, 523km (325mi) east of Berlin, Germany.[59] The city straddles the Vistula River. It is located in the heartland of the Masovian Plain, and its average elevation is 100 metres (330ft) above sea level. The highest point on the left side of the city lies at a height of 115.7 metres (379.6ft) ("Redutowa" bus depot, district of Wola), on the right side 122.1 metres (400.6ft) ("Groszwka" estate, district of Wesoa, by the eastern border). The lowest point lies at a height 75.6 metres (248.0ft) (at the right bank of the Vistula, by the eastern border of Warsaw). There are some hills (mostly artificial) located within the confines of the city e.g. Warsaw Uprising Hill (121 metres (397.0ft)) and Szczliwice hill (138 metres (452.8ft) the highest point of Warsaw in general).

Warsaw is located on two main geomorphologic formations: the plain moraine plateau and the Vistula Valley with its asymmetrical pattern of different terraces. The Vistula River is the specific axis of Warsaw, which divides the city into two parts, left and right. The left one is situated both on the moraine plateau (10 to 25m (32.8 to 82.0ft) above Vistula level) and on the Vistula terraces (max. 6.5m (21.3ft) above Vistula level). The significant element of the relief, in this part of Warsaw, is the edge of moraine plateau called Warsaw Escarpment. It is 20 to 25m (65.6 to 82.0ft) high in the Old Town and Central district and about 10m (32.8ft) in the north and south of Warsaw. It goes through the city and plays an important role as a landmark.

The plain moraine plateau has only a few natural and artificial ponds and also groups of clay pits. The pattern of the Vistula terraces is asymmetrical. The left side consists mainly of two levels: the highest one contains former flooded terraces and the lowest one the flood plain terrace. The contemporary flooded terrace still has visible valleys and ground depressions with water systems coming from the old Vistula riverbed. They consist of still quite natural streams and lakes as well as the pattern of drainage ditches. The right side of Warsaw has a different pattern of geomorphological forms. There are several levels of the Vistula plain terraces (flooded as well as formerly flooded), and only a small part is a not so visible moraine escarpment. Aeolian sand with a number of dunes parted by peat swamps or small ponds cover the highest terrace. These are mainly forested areas (pine forest).

Officially, Warsaw experiences an oceanic climate, denoted by Cfb by Kppen's original classification.[60][61] But the city being in the midst of Siberian air mass and far from the coast has clear continental influences (Dfb), defined as such with old data.[62][63][64][65] By classification of the Wincenty Okoowicz has a warm-temperate climate in the center of continental Europe with the "fusion" of different features.[66] The city has cold, snowy, cloudy winters and warm, sunny, stormy summers. Spring and autumn can be unpredictable, highly prone to sudden weather changes; however, temperatures are usually mild and with low humidity, especially around May and September.[62] The average temperature ranges between 1.8C (29F) in January and 19.2C (66.6F) in July. The mean year temperature is 8.5C (47.3F). Temperatures may often reach 30C (86F) in the summer, although the effects of hot weather are usually offset by relatively low dew points and large diurnal temperature differences.[citation needed] Warsaw is Europe's sixth driest city (third in Eastern Europe), with yearly rainfall averaging 529 millimetres (20.8in), the wettest month being July.[67]

Warsaw's mixture of architectural styles reflects the turbulent history of the city and country. During the Second World War, Warsaw was razed to the ground by bombing raids and planned destruction.[50] After liberation, rebuilding began as in other cities of the communist-ruled People's Republic of Poland. Most of the historical buildings were thoroughly reconstructed. However, some of the buildings from the 19th century that had been preserved in reasonably reconstructible form were nonetheless eradicated in the 1950s and 1960s (e.g. Kronenberg Palace).[71][72] Mass residential blocks were erected, with basic design typical of Eastern Bloc countries.

Public spaces attract heavy investment, so that the city has gained entirely new squares, parks and monuments. Warsaw's current urban landscape is one of modern and contemporary architecture.[73]

Warsaw's palaces, churches and mansions display a richness of color and architectural details. Buildings are representatives of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. The city has wonderful examples of architecture from the Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and neoclassical periods, all of which are located within easy walking distance of the town centre.

Gothic architecture is represented in the majestic churches but also at the burgher houses and fortifications. The most significant buildings are St. John's Cathedral (14th century), a typical example of the so-called Masovian Gothic style; St. Mary's Church (1411), a town house of Burbach family (14th century);[74] Gunpowder Tower (after 1379); and the Royal Castle Curia Maior (14071410). The most notable examples of Renaissance architecture in the city are the house of the Baryczko merchant family (1562), a building called "The Negro" (early 17th century), and Salwator tenement (1632). The most interesting examples of Mannerist architecture are the Royal Castle (15961619) and the Jesuit Church (16091626) at Old Town. Among the first structures of the early Baroque, the most important are St. Hyacinth's Church (16031639) and Sigismund's Column (1644).

Building activity occurred in numerous noble palaces and churches during the later decades of the 17th century. Some of the best examples of this architecture are Krasiski Palace (16771683), Wilanw Palace (16771696) and St. Kazimierz Church (16881692). The most impressive examples of rococo architecture are Czapski Palace (17121721), Palace of the Four Winds (1730s) and Visitationist Church (faade 17281761). The neoclassical architecture in Warsaw can be described by the simplicity of the geometrical forms teamed with a great inspiration from the Roman period. Some of the best examples of the neoclassical style are the Palace on the Water (rebuilt 17751795), Krlikarnia (17821786), Carmelite Church (faade 17611783) and Evangelical Holy Trinity Church (17771782). The economic growth during the first years of Congress Poland caused a rapid rise of architecture. The Neoclassical revival affected all aspects of architecture; the most notable examples are the Great Theater (18251833) and buildings located at Bank Square (18251828).

Exceptional examples of the bourgeois architecture of the later periods were not restored by the communist authorities after the war (like the previously mentioned Kronenberg Palace and insurance company Rosja building) or they were rebuilt in socialist realism style (like Warsaw Philharmony edifice originally inspired by Palais Garnier in Paris). Despite that, the Warsaw University of Technology building (18991902)[75] is the most interesting of the late 19th-century architecture. Some 19th-century buildings in the Praga district (the Vistula's right bank) have been restored although many have been poorly maintained. Warsaw's municipal government authorities have decided to rebuild the Saxon Palace and the Brhl Palace, the most distinctive buildings in prewar Warsaw.[76]

Notable examples of post-war architecture include the Palace of Culture and Science (19521955), a soc-realist skyscraper located in the city centre, and the Constitution Square with its monumental socialist realism architecture (MDM estate).[77]

Contemporary architecture in Warsaw is represented by the Metropolitan Office Building at Pilsudski Square by Norman Foster,[78] Warsaw University Library (BUW) by Marek Budzyski and Zbigniew Badowski, featuring a garden on its roof and view of the Vistula River, Rondo 1 office building by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Museum of the History of Polish Jews by Rainer Mahlamki and Golden Terraces, consisting of seven overlapping domes retail and business centre.

It has been said that Warsaw, together with Frankfurt, London, Paris and Rotterdam, is one of the cities with the highest number of skyscrapers in Europe.[17] Warsaw is ranked as 79th in the list of cities with the most skyscrapers around the world.[79]

Although contemporary Warsaw is a fairly young city, it has numerous tourist attractions. Apart from the Warsaw Old Town quarter, reconstructed after World War II, each borough has something to offer. Among the most notable landmarks of the Old Town are the Royal Castle, King Sigismund's Column, Market Square, and the Barbican.

Further south is the so-called Royal Route, with many classicist palaces, the Presidential Palace and the University of Warsaw campus. Wilanw Palace, the former royal residence of King John III Sobieski, is notable for its Baroque architecture and parks.[80]

Warsaw's oldest public park, the Saxon Garden, is located within 10 minutes' walk from the old town.[81] Warsaw's biggest public park is the azienki Park, also called the "Royal Baths Park", established in the 17th century and given its current classical shape in the late 18th century.[82] It is located further south, on the Royal Route, about 3km (1.9mi) from the Warsaw Old Town.

Powzki Cemetery is one of the oldest cemeteries in Europe,[83] full of sculptures, some of them by the most renowned Polish artists of the 19th and 20th centuries. Since it serves the religious communities of Warsaw such as Catholics, Orthodox, Jews, Muslims or Protestants, it is often called a necropolis. Nearby is the Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery, one of the largest Jewish cemeteries in Europe.

In many places in the city the Jewish culture and history resonates down through time.[84] Among them the most notable are the Jewish theater, the Noyk Synagogue, Janusz Korczak's Orphanage and the picturesque Prna Street.[84] The tragic pages of Warsaw's history are commemorated in places such as the Monument to the Ghetto Heroes, the Umschlagplatz, fragments of the Ghetto wall on Sienna Street and a mound in memory of the Jewish Combat Organization.[84]

There are also many places commemorating the heroic history of Warsaw.[85] Pawiak, an infamous German Gestapo prison now occupied by a Mausoleum of Memory of Martyrdom and the museum, is only the beginning of a walk in the traces of Heroic City.[85] The Warsaw Citadel, an impressive 19th-century fortification built after the defeat of the November uprising, was a place of martyrdom for the Poles.[85] Another important monument, the statue of Little Insurrectionist located at the ramparts of the Old Town, commemorates the children who served as messengers and frontline troops in the Warsaw Uprising, while the impressive Warsaw Uprising Monument by Wincenty Kuma was erected in memory of the largest insurrection of World War II.[85][86]

In Warsaw there are many places connected with the life and work of Frdric Chopin. The heart of the Polish-born composer is sealed inside Warsaw's Holy Cross Church.[87] During the summer time the Chopin Statue in azienki Park is a place where pianists give concerts to the park audience.[88]

Also many references to Marie Curie, her work and her family can be found in Warsaw: Marie's birthplace at the Warsaw New Town, the working places where she did her first scientific works[89] and the Radium Institute at Wawelska Street for the research and the treatment of which she founded in 1925.[90]

Green space covers almost a quarter of the area of Warsaw,[91] including a broad range from small neighborhood parks, green spaces along streets and in courtyards, to avenues of trees and large historic parks, nature conservation areas and the urban forests at the fringe of the city.

There are as many as 82 parks in the city which cover 8% of its area.[92] The oldest ones, once parts of representative palaces, are Saxon Garden, the Krasiski Palace Garden, azienki Park (Royal Baths Park), Wilanw Palace Park and Krlikarnia Palace Park (See also: Greenery in the city).

The Saxon Garden, covering an area of 15.5 ha, was formally a royal garden. There are over 100 different species of trees and the avenues are a place to sit and relax. At the east end of the park, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is situated. In the 19th century the Krasiski Palace Garden was remodelled by Franciszek Szanior. Within the central area of the park one can still find old trees dating from that period: maidenhair tree, black walnut, Turkish hazel and Caucasian wingnut trees. With its benches, flower carpets, a pond with ducks on and a playground for kids, the Krasiski Palace Garden is a popular strolling destination for the Varsovians. The Monument of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising is also situated here. azienki Park covers an area of 76 ha. The unique character and history of the park is reflected in its landscape architecture (pavilions, sculptures, bridges, water cascades, ponds) and vegetation (domestic and foreign species of trees and bushes). What makes this park different from other green spaces in Warsaw is the presence of peacocks and pheasants, which can be seen here walking around freely, and royal carp in the pond. Wilanw Palace Park dates back to the second half of the 17th century. It covers an area of 43 ha. Its central French-styled area corresponds to the ancient, Baroque forms of the palace. The eastern section of the park, closest to the Palace, is the two-level garden with a terrace facing the pond. The park around the Krlikarnia Palace is situated on the old escarpment of the Vistula. The park has lanes running on a few levels deep into the ravines on both sides of the palace.

Other green spaces in the city include the Botanic Garden and the University Library garden. They have extensive botanical collection of rare domestic and foreign plants, while a palm house in the New Orangery displays plants of subtropics from all over the world.[93] Besides, within the city borders, there are also: Pole Mokotowskie (a big park in the northern Mokotw, where was the first horse racetrack and then the airport), Park Ujazdowski (close to the Sejm and John Lennon street), Park of Culture and Rest in Powsin, by the southern city border, and Park Skaryszewski by the right Vistula bank, in Praga. The oldest park in Praga, the Praga Park, was established in 18651871 and designed by Jan Dobrowolski.[94] In 1927 a zoological garden (Ogrd Zoologiczny) was established on the park grounds,[95] and in 1952 a bear run, still open today.

The flora of the city may be considered very rich in species. The species richness is mainly due to the location of Warsaw within the border region of several big floral regions comprising substantial proportions of close-to-wilderness areas (natural forests, wetlands along the Vistula) as well as arable land, meadows and forests. Bielany Forest, located within the borders of Warsaw, is the remaining part of the Masovian Primeval Forest. Bielany Forest nature reserve is connected with Kampinos Forest.[96] It is home to rich fauna and flora. Within the forest there are three cycling and walking trails. Another big forest area is Kabaty Forest by the southern city border. Warsaw has also two botanic gardens: by azienki park (a didactic-research unit of the University of Warsaw) as well as by the Park of Culture and Rest in Powsin (a unit of the Polish Academy of Science).

There are 13 natural reserves in Warsaw among others, Bielany Forest, Kabaty Woods, and Czerniakw Lake. About 15 kilometres (9 miles) from Warsaw, the Vistula river's environment changes strikingly and features a perfectly preserved ecosystem, with a habitat of animals that includes the otter, beaver and hundreds of bird species.[97] There are also several lakes in Warsaw mainly the oxbow lakes, like Czerniakw Lake, the lakes in azienki or Wilanw Parks, and Kamionek Lake. There are many small lakes in the parks, but only a few are permanent the majority are emptied before winter to clean them of plants and sediments.

The Warsaw Zoo covers an area of 40 hectares (99 acres).[98] There are about 5,000 animals representing nearly 500 species.[98] Although officially created in 1928,[98] it traces back its roots to 17th century private menageries, often open to the public.[99][100]

Demographically, it was the most diverse city in Poland, with significant numbers of foreign-born inhabitants.[133] In addition to the Polish majority, there was a significant Jewish minority in Warsaw. According to the Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 638,000, Jews constituted 219,000 (around 34% percent).[134] Warsaw's prewar Jewish population of more than 350,000 constituted about 30 percent of the city's total population.[45] In 1933, out of 1,178,914 inhabitants 833,500 were of Polish mother tongue.[135] World War II changed the demographics of the city, and to this day there is much less ethnic diversity than in the previous 300 years of Warsaw's history.[45] Most of the modern day population growth is based on internal migration and urbanisation.

In 1939, c. 1,300,000 people lived in Warsaw,[136] but in 1945 only 420,000. During the first years after the war, the population growth was c. 6%, so shortly the city started to suffer from the lack of flats and of areas for new houses. The first remedial measure was the Warsaw area enlargement (1951) but the city authorities were still forced to introduce residency registration limitations: only the spouses and children of the permanent residents as well as some persons of public importance (like renowned specialists) were allowed to get the registration, hence halving the population growth in the following years. It also bolstered a stereotype popular among the dwellers of other cities claiming that average Varsovians thought of themselves as better only because they lived in the capital. While all restrictions on residency registration were scrapped in 1990, a negative image of a typical Warsaw inhabitant in some form persists till this day.[137][138]

Much like most capital cities in Europe, Warsaw boasts a foreign-born population that is significantly larger than in other cities, although not coming close to the figures representing the likes of Madrid or Rome. In 2016, it was estimated that 21,000 people living in Warsaw were foreign born, although some suspect the actual number could be as high as 60,000150,000,[139] or 1.2~3.4% 8.5% of all Varsovians. Of those, Ukrainians, Vietnamese, Byelorussians and Russians were the most prominent groups.[140]

Throughout its existence, Warsaw had been a multi-cultural city.[141] According to the 1901 census, out of 711,988 inhabitants 56.2% were Catholics, 35.7% Jews, 5% Greek Orthodox Christians and 2.8% Protestants.[142] Eight years later, in 1909, there were 281,754 Jews (36.9%), 18,189 Protestants (2.4%) and 2,818 Mariavites (0.4%).[143] This led to construction of hundreds of places of religious worship in all parts of the town. Most of them were destroyed in the aftermath of the Warsaw uprising of 1944. After the war, the new communist authorities of Poland discouraged church construction and only a small number were rebuilt.[144]

In the survey, conducted in 2010 by a team of sociologists from Cardinal Stefan Wyszyski University, 66% of the Warsaw residents declared themselves as believers and 6% as non-believers. 32% of the faithful of the Archdiocese of Warsaw attended masses and 34% of the faithful of the Warsaw-Praga diocese. The Eucharist was received by about 15% of the faithful.[citation needed]

As the capital of Poland, Warsaw is the political centre of the country. All state agencies are located there, including the Polish Parliament, the Presidential Office and the Supreme Court. In the Polish parliament the city and the area are represented by 31 MPs (out of 460). Additionally, Warsaw elects two MEPs (Members of the European Parliament).

The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Pose in Polish (literally 'Envoy'). It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm (Marszaek Sejmu).

The municipal government existed in Warsaw until World War II and was restored in 1990 (during the communist times, the National City Council Miejska Rada Narodowa governed in Warsaw). Since 1990, the system of city administration has been changed several times also as the result of the reform which restored powiats, cancelled in 1975. Finally, according to the Warsaw Act, the city is divided into 18 districts and forms one city powiat with a unified municipal government.[145]

The basic unit of territorial division in Poland is a commune (gmina).[146] A city is also a commune but with a city charter.[146] Both cities and communes are governed by a mayor but in the communes the mayor is vogt (wjt in Polish), however in the cities burmistrz. Some bigger cities obtain the entitlements, i.e. tasks and privileges, which are possessed by the units of the second level of the territorial division counties or powiats. An example of such entitlement is a car registration: a gmina cannot register cars, this is a powiat's task (i.e. a registration number depends on what powiat a car had been registered in, not the gmina). In this case we say "city county" or powiat grodzki. Such cities are for example Lublin, Krakw, Gdask, and Pozna. In Warsaw, its districts additionally have some of a powiat's entitlements like the already mentioned car registration. For example, the Wola district has its own evidence and the Ursynw district its own (and the cars from Wola have another type of registration number than those from Ursynw). But for instance the districts in Krakw do not have the entitlements of a powiat, so the registration numbers in Krakw are of the same type for all districts.

Legislative power in Warsaw is vested in a unicameral Warsaw City Council (Rada Miasta), which comprises 60 members.[145] Council members are elected directly every four years. Like most legislative bodies, the city council divides itself into committees which have the oversight of various functions of the city government.[145] Bills passed by a simple majority are sent to the mayor (the President of Warsaw), who may sign them into law. If the mayor vetoes a bill, the Council has 30 days to override the veto by a two-thirds majority vote.

Each of the 18 separate city districts has its own council (Rada dzielnicy).[145] Their duties are focused on aiding the President and the City Council, as well as supervising various municipal companies, city-owned property and schools. The head of each of the District Councils is named the Mayor (Burmistrz) and is elected by the local council from the candidates proposed by the President of Warsaw.

The mayor of Warsaw is called President. Generally, in Poland, the mayors of bigger cities are called presidents i.e. cities with over 100,000 people or that had a president before 1990. The first Warsaw President was Jan Andrzej Menich (16951696).[147] Between 1975 and 1990 the Warsaw presidents simultaneously led the Warsaw Voivode. Since 1990 the President of Warsaw had been elected by the city council.[148] In the years of 19941999 the mayor of the district Centrum automatically was designated as the President of Warsaw: the mayor of Centrum was elected by the district council of Centrum and the council was elected only by the Centrum residents. Since 2002 the President of Warsaw is elected by all of the citizens of Warsaw.[148]

The current President of Warsaw is Rafa Trzaskowski. The first president elected according these rules was Lech Kaczyski. When he was elected as the President of Polish Republic (December 2005) he resigned as mayor on the day before taking office.

Until 1994, there were 7 districts in Warsaw: rdmiecie, Praga Pnoc, Praga Poudnie, oliborz, Wola, Ochota, and Mokotw. Between 1994 and 2002, there were 11 districts: Centrum, Biaoka, Targwek, Rembertw, Wawer, Wilanw, Ursynw, Wochy, Ursus, Bemowo, and Bielany. In 2002, the town Wesoa was incorporated and the territorial division of Warsaw was established as follows:

Warsaw is a county (powiat), and is further divided into 18 districts (dzielnica),[150] each one with its own administrative body.[151] Each of the districts is customarily subdivided into several neighbourhoods which have no legal or administrative status. Warsaw has two historic neighbourhoods, called Old Town (Stare Miasto) and New Town (Nowe Miasto), in the borough of rdmiecie.[152]

In 2011, Warsaw was ranked the world's 46th most expensive city to live in.[153] It was classified as an alpha world city (also known as a "major global city that links economic regions into the world economy") by the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network from Loughborough University, placing it on a par with cities such as Sydney, Istanbul, Amsterdam or Seoul.

Warsaw, especially its city centre (rdmiecie), is home not only to many national institutions and government agencies, but also to many domestic and international companies. In 2006, 304,016 companies were registered in the city.[154] Warsaw's ever-growing business community has been noticed globally, regionally, and nationally. MasterCard Emerging Market Index has noted Warsaw's economic strength and commercial center. Warsaw was ranked as the seventh-greatest emerging market. Foreign investors' financial participation in the city's development was estimated in 2002 at over 650million euros.

Warsaw produces 12% of Poland's national income,[155] which in 2008 was 305.1% of the Polish average per capita (or 160% of the European Union average). The Nominal GDP per capita in Warsaw amounted to PLN 134,000 in 2015 (c. 31,200 or $74,400 in PPP[156]).[157] Total nominal GDP of the city in 2010 amounted to 191.766 billion PLN, 111,696 PLN per capita, which was 301.1% of the Polish average. Warsaw leads East-Central Europe in foreign investment and in 2006, GDP growth met expectations with a level of 6.1%.[158] It also has one of the fastest growing economies, with GDP growth at 6.5 percent in 2007 and 6.1 percent in the first quarter of 2008.[159]

At the same time the unemployment rate is one of the lowest in Poland, at around 4% in February 2015.[160] The city itself receives around 8,740,882,000 zotys in taxes and direct government grants.

Warsaw's first stock exchange was established in 1817 and continued trading until World War II. It was re-established in April 1991, following the end of the post-war communist control of the country and the reintroduction of a free-market economy.[161] Today, the Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) is, according to many indicators,[159] the largest market in the region, with 374 companies listed and total capitalization of 162,584 mln EUR as of 31 August 2009.[162] From 1991 until 2000, the stock exchange was, ironically, located in the building previously used as the headquarters of the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR).[163]

During Warsaw's reconstruction after World War II, the communist authorities decided that the city would become a major industrial centre. As a result, numerous large factories were built in and around the city. The largest were the Huta Warszawa Steel Works, the FSO car factory and the "Ursus" tractor factory.

As the communist economy deteriorated, these factories lost significance and most went bankrupt after 1989.[164][165] Today, the Arcelor Warszawa Steel mill (formerly Huta Warszawa) is the only major factory remaining.

The FSO Car Factory was established in 1951. A number of vehicles have been assembled there over the decades, including the Warszawa, Syrena, Fiat 125p (under license from Fiat, later renamed FSO 125p when the license expired) and the Polonez. The last two models listed were also sent abroad and assembled in a number of other countries, including Egypt and Colombia. In 1995 the factory was purchased by the South Korean car manufacturer Daewoo, which assembled the Tico, Espero, Nubia, Tacuma, Leganza, Lanos and Matiz there for the European market. In 2005 the factory was sold to AvtoZAZ, a Ukrainian car manufacturer which assembled the Chevrolet Aveo there. The license for the production of the Aveo expired in February 2011 and has not been renewed since. Currently the company is defunct.

The "Ursus" factory opened in 1893 and is still in operation. Throughout its history various machinery was assembled there, including motorcycles, military vehicles, trucks and buses; but since World War II it has produced only tractors.

The number of state-owned enterprises continues to decrease while the number of companies operating with foreign capital is on the rise, reflecting the continued shift towards a modern market-based economy.[164] The largest foreign investors are Coca-Cola Amatil and Metro AG.[164] Warsaw has the biggest concentration of electronics and high-tech industry in Poland, while the growing consumer market perfectly fosters the development of the food-processing industry.[164]

Warsaw holds some of the finest institutions of higher education in Poland. It is home to four major universities and over 62 smaller schools of higher education.[166] The overall number of students of all grades of education in Warsaw is almost 500,000 (29.2% of the city population; 2002). The number of university students is over 280,000.[167] Most of the reputable universities are public, but in recent years there has also been an upsurge in the number of private universities.

The University of Warsaw was established in 1816, when the partitions of Poland separated Warsaw from the oldest and most influential Polish academic center, in Krakw.[168] Warsaw University of Technology is the second academic school of technology in the country, and one of the largest in East-Central Europe, employing 2,000 professors.[169] Other institutions for higher education include the Medical University of Warsaw, the largest medical school in Poland and one of the most prestigious; the National Defence University, highest military academic institution in Poland; the Fryderyk Chopin University of Music, the oldest and largest music school in Poland and one of the largest in Europe;[170] the Warsaw School of Economics, the oldest and most renowned economic university in the country;[171] the Warsaw University of Life Sciences, the largest agricultural university, founded in 1818;[172] and the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, the first private secular university in the country.

Warsaw has numerous libraries, many of which contain vast collections of historic documents. The most important library in terms of historic document collections is the National Library of Poland. The library holds 8.2million volumes in its collection.[173] Formed in 1928,[174] it sees itself as a successor to the Zauski Library, the biggest in Poland and one of the first and biggest libraries in the world.[174][175]

Another important library the University Library, founded in 1816,[176] is home to over two million items.[177] The building was designed by architects Marek Budzyski and Zbigniew Badowski and opened on 15 December 1999.[178] It is surrounded by green. The University Library garden, designed by Irena Bajerska, was opened on 12 June 2002. It is one of the largest and most beautiful roof gardens in Europe with an area of more than 10,000m2 (110,000sqft), and plants covering 5,111m2 (55,010sqft).[179] As the university garden it is open to the public every day.[179]

Warsaw has seen major infrastructural changes over the past few years amidst increased foreign investment, economic growth and EU funding. The city has a much improved infrastructure with new roads, flyovers, bridges, etc.[180]

Warsaw lacks a complete ring road system and most traffic goes directly through the city centre, leading to the eleventh highest level of congestion in Europe.[181] The Warsaw ring road has been planned to consist of three express roads: S2 (south), S8 (north-west) and S17 (east). Currently S8 and a part of S2 are open, with S2 to be finished by 2020[182].

The A2 motorway opened in June 2012, stretches west from Warsaw and is a direct motorway connection with d, Pozna and ultimately with Berlin.

The city has two international airports: Warsaw Chopin Airport, located just 10 kilometres (6.2mi) from the city centre, and Warsaw-Modlin Airport, located 35 kilometres (22mi) to the north, opened in July 2012. With around 100 international and domestic flights a day and with 15 500 000 passengers served in 2017, Warsaw Frdric Chopin Airport is by far the biggest airport in Poland and in Central-Eastern Europe.[183] and it has also been called "the most important and largest airport in Central Europe".[184]

Public transport in Warsaw includes buses, trams (streetcars), Metro, the light rail Warszawska Kolej Dojazdowa line, urban railway Szybka Kolej Miejska, regional rail Koleje Mazowieckie (Mazovian Railways),[185] and bicycle sharing systems (Veturilo). The buses, trams, urban railway and Metro are managed by Zarzd Transportu Miejskiego (ZTM, the Warsaw Municipal Transport Authority).

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Warsaw - Wikipedia

The historic buildings merged into the modern, sky-reaching Warsaw. The academic area surrounded with a huge agricultural terrain. We are inviting you to Mazovia - the region of contracts and big opportunities.

We suggest to begin our excursion from Pock, the oldest town in the region. Pock is located in the middle of Mazovia, at the borderland of Kotlina Pocka and Pojezierze Dobrzyskie.The burg city, established on the slope above the Vistula River, used to be the seat of bishops, Mazovian dukes and Polish lords. It is an amazing place and as such it has been the inspiration for poets, painters and cameramen. Its magic is hidden in its unique beauty created by the history and the present.

In Putusk, only 60 kilometers away from Warsaw, inside the walls of the XVth c. Castle located on the brink of Puszcza Biaa, at the blue Narew- there is the Polonia House (now a beautiful hotel). The city is famous for the longest (380 kilometers) cobbled square in Europe.

elazowa Wola is a small town located in the Mazovian plateau, on the outskirts of Sochaczew. There is a beautiful manor the place where the world famous pianist and composer, Frederic Chopin, was born. The interior of the museum reflects the character of the epoch; however, the Chopins manor XIXth c. equipment has not survived till today.

The precincts of Grjec are the biggest fruit growing areas in Poland. They call this place the biggest orchard in Europe, and it is said that every third apple in Poland is grown Grjec. These apples are of unusual acidity and beautiful red color - the features ensured by the unique microclimate of the area.

The Zegrze Reservoir [Zalew Zegrzyski] is a place for recreation for Warsaw and neighboring citizens due to the many guest houses and water sport facilities located mainly in Zegrz, Zegrzynek, Biaobrzegi and Rynia. Around the water reservoir there are cycling paths.

Near Warsaw there is the Kampinos Forest [Puszcza Kampinoska] the Kampinos EnlargeNational Park [Kampinowski Park Narodowy] one of the most important forest complexes in Poland. In the forest growing on the sand dunes there live such wild animals as elks, lynxes, beavers and badgers.The Bug Landscape Park [Nadbuaski Park Narodowy], located in central-eastern part of the Mazowieckie Province, is characterized by the variety of landscape yet its most important value is the Bug valley, with many oxbow lakes and islands in the current and sandbanks and slopes. Circa 1/3 of the parks area is covered by forests - the remains of the old virgin forests. Other interesting places are the ruins of the old castles of Mazovian dukes in Ciechanw and Czersk, the stronghold in Modlin, the river basin of Narew or Konstancin Jeziorna - the beautiful health resort near Warsaw.

The Mazovian Lanscape consists of heights and plains, crossed out by the wide valleys of the queen of the Polish rivers the Vistula, the symbolic Bug river, the historic Bzura river, and picturesque rivers: Narew, Pilica and Wkra.

There are only a few, mainly post-glacial lakes, like the one near Gostynin and the lakes in the Pojezierze Dobrzynskie. The forests cover more than 20% of the area, where the green pines and long-lasting oaks predominate the landscape.

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Mazowieckie Province

Program Description

Santa Barbara City College offers courses that provide opportunities for students to increase their potential for success, develop leadership competencies and management skills, and evaluate and plan their educational programs.

The college faculty believes strongly that students should take time early in their educational endeavors to develop a plan, seek information, and prepare themselves for a comprehensive program that is best suited to their interests, abilities and goals.

Personal Development courses at SBCC, as well as a diverse array of support services, allow the student to develop and organize his or her program of courses, co-curricular activities and use of support services to achieve desired career training, educational goals, life management skills and leadership skills.

Educational planning and academic skills development opportunities through Student Success, Educational Planning and College Search courses should be an essential part of every student's college curriculum, while specialized courses provide unique opportunities for leadership development.

All students, particularly those who are undecided or looking for possible new career directions, are urged to take advantage of Career Planning courses, services and professional guidance provided by the faculty and staff of the Career Advancement Center. Career planning courses and services also provide an opportunity to explore, choose and enter careers and professions.

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Personal Development - Santa Barbara City College

Setting goals is essential to a successful self-improvement journey. But where do you start? Here are a few examples of personal development goals to get you moving toward the right track.

Have you ever intended to spend less than 15 minutes on a small task, only to spend the first five looking for something in your office that you cant complete the task without? Believe it or not, this common problem is completely fixable.

If you are easily distracted by the mess in your office, it might be time to reorganize. Rearrange your furniture so you dont have to walk across your office to get to a particular shelf or cabinet. Keep your desk free of clutter and make sure you have adequate lighting, too, for better productivity.

This isnt as silly of a goal as it might sound. Pay better attention to how you talk with and respond to others in your life. Do you interrupt and talk over people without meaning to? Are you not as great of a listener as you may have thought? This is something you might do unintentionally, but its something you can work on.

It is important to know the most effective ways to communicate with the people around you, and a great goal to work toward both in your personal and professional life. Good communication is the key to a successful work and home environment.

Time management, or lack thereof, can mean the difference between a productive yet low-stress environment and a day so crammed with last-minute projects that you cant even let yourself enjoy a single minute of it.

Practice better time management techniques by learning how to prioritize your to-do lists and make better use of calendar and scheduling apps. With better time management skills, you will be able to get a lot more done with much higher quality results.

We still here over and over again that multi-tasking is the best way to get things done, but anyone who claims that theory to be true just isnt on the right track anymore. Mono-tasking is the new way to be productive, and the best time to start learning how is right now.

Choose one task at a time to work on. Only work on that one task for about an hour before taking a break. You can either go back to that task after your break or move on to a different one. The idea is not to jump between multiple smaller tasks at once, which is not good for our brains.

If procrastination isnt your worst enemy, youre lucky. We all struggle with it to some degree in different areas of our lives. When it comes to personal development, learning to manage our procrastination habits should be one of the first things on your list.

You have to stop procrastinating, at least to the point where its negatively impacting you or other people. Take that task that you want to do the least and get it done first. Eliminate those pesky distractions and get to work, so you can be stress free sooner.

If you arent good at managing your own stress, there will never be a good time to start learning how. It is one of those goals you simply have to decide to do, and start working on achieving right away.

Figure out which stress relief techniques work best for you. Ten short minutes of meditation? Yoga? Writing in a journal? The key is to find the best way to keep your stress levels under control and stick with it.

Think of how it feels whenever someone gives you a compliment. On the surface, it might feel a little embarrassing when someone calls attention to you. Deep down, though, compliments feel good. They reassure us that weve done something right today.

Though you might not like compliments all that much, internally, they can make a world of difference. You arent the only one who feels this way, either, which is why a good personal development goal is to try complimenting other people more often. Make someone else feel good: it will make you feel good, too.

The world doesnt revolve around you, and even without meaning to, you can give off the impression that you believe it does just by the way you phrase your sentences. It is tempting to use yourself as an example for every piece of commentary you offer up, but it isnt necessary.

Try using the word I less often, especially when dealing with confrontation with other people. Its hard to get this done when we arent staying on task sounds a lot less intimidating than, I cant get anything done when people arent paying attention. Focus less on you and more on the entire equation you are a part of.

As we dive further and further into the workforce, we tend to find there is a lot less time and energy left over from our jobs to put into personal projects we do on our own after work. Things like building our own bookshelves, putting together scrapbooks and other hobbies tend to fall between the cracks.

Make it a goal to focus on one personal project from start to finish. Dedicate a little bit of time each weekday or time over the weekends to work on that project until its done. We need these kinds of projects to keep us motivated and take our minds off of work.

No matter your goals, remember to make them specific. Its okay if they seem a little self-centered: these are personal goals, after all; theyre supposed to focus on you. Living the kind of life you have always wished you could live isnt as far off of a dream as you might have thought.

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9 Examples of Personal Development Goals - Self Thrive

Transhumanism (sometimes abbreviated >H or H+) is an international intellectual and cultural movement supporting the use of new sciences and technologies to enhance human cognitive and physical abilities and ameliorate what it regards as undesirable and unnecessary aspects of the human condition, such as disease, aging, and death. Transhumanist thinkers study the possibilities and consequences of developing and using human enhancement techniques and other emerging technologies for these purposes. Possible dangers, as well as benefits, of powerful new technologies that might radically change the conditions of human life are also of concern to the transhumanist movement.

Although the first known use of the term "transhumanism" dates from 1957, the contemporary meaning is a product of the 1980s, when a group of scientists, artists, and futurists based in the United States began to organize what has since grown into the transhumanist movement. Transhumanist thinkers postulate that human beings will eventually be transformed into beings with such greatly expanded abilities as to merit the label "posthuman".

The transhumanist vision of a profoundly transformed future humanity has attracted many supporters as well as critics from a wide range of perspectives. Transhumanism has been described by a proponent as the "movement that epitomizes the most daring, courageous, imaginative, and idealistic aspirations of humanity," while according to a prominent critic, it is the world's most dangerous idea.

In his 2005 article A History of Transhumanist Thought, philosopher Nick Bostrom locates transhumanism's roots in Renaissance humanism and the Enlightenment. The Marquis de Condorcet, an eighteenth century French philosopher, is the first thinker whom he identifies as speculating about the use of medical science to extend the human life span. In the twentieth century, a direct and influential precursor to transhumanist concepts was J.B.S. Haldane's 1923 essay Daedalus: Science and the Future, which predicted that great benefits would come from applications of genetics and other advanced sciences to human biology.

Biologist Julian Huxley, brother of author Aldous Huxley (a childhood friend of Haldane's), appears to have been the first to use the actual word "transhumanism". Writing in 1957, he defined transhumanism as "man remaining man, but transcending himself, by realizing new possibilities of and for his human nature". This definition differs substantially from the one commonly in use since the 1980s.

The coalescence of an identifiable transhumanist movement began in the last decades of the twentieth century. In 1966, FM-2030 (formerly F.M. Esfandiary), a futurist who taught "new concepts of the Human" at The New School for Social Research in New York City, began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles and world views transitional to "posthumanity" as "transhuman" (short for "transitory human"). In 1972, Robert Ettinger contributed to the popularization of the concept of "transhumanity" in his book Man into Superman. FM-2030 published the Upwingers Manifesto in 1973 to stimulate transhumanly conscious activism.

The first self-described transhumanists met formally in the early 1980s at the University of California, Los Angeles, which became the main center of transhumanist thought. Here, FM-2030 lectured on his "third way" futurist ideology. At the EZTV Media venue frequented by transhumanists and other futurists, Natasha Vita-More presented Breaking Away, her 1980 experimental film with the theme of humans breaking away from their biological limitations and the earth's gravity as they head into space. FM-2030 and Vita-More soon began holding gatherings for transhumanists in Los Angeles, which included students from FM-2030's courses and audiences from Vita-More's artistic productions. In 1982, Vita-More authored the Transhumanist Arts Statement, and, six years later, produced the cable TV show TransCentury Update on transhumanity, a program which reached over 100,000 viewers.

In 1988, philosopher Max More founded the Extropy Institute and was the main contributor to a formal transhumanist doctrine, which took the form of the Principles of Extropy in 1990.[ In 1990, he laid the foundation of modern transhumanism by giving it a new definition:

"Transhumanism is a class of philosophies that seek to guide us towards a posthuman condition. Transhumanism shares many elements of humanism, including a respect for reason and science, a commitment to progress, and a valuing of human (or transhuman) existence in this life. [] Transhumanism differs from humanism in recognizing and anticipating the radical alterations in the nature and possibilities of our lives resulting from various sciences and technologies []." In 1998, philosophers Nick Bostrom and David Pearce founded the World Transhumanist Association (WTA), an organization with a liberal democratic perspective. In 1999, the WTA drafted and adopted The Transhumanist Declaration. The Transhumanist FAQ, prepared by the WTA, gave two formal definitions for transhumanism:

The intellectual and cultural movement that affirms the possibility and desirability of fundamentally improving the human condition through applied reason, especially by developing and making widely available technologies to eliminate aging and to greatly enhance human intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities. The study of the ramifications, promises, and potential dangers of technologies that will enable us to overcome fundamental human limitations, and the related study of the ethical matters involved in developing and using such technologies. A number of similar definitions have been collected by Anders Sandberg, an academic with a high profile in the transhumanist movement.

In 2006, the board of directors of the Extropy Institute made a decision to cease operations of the organization, stating that its mission was "essentially completed". This left the World Transhumanist Association as the leading international transhumanist organization.

For a list of notable individuals who have identified themselves, or been identified by others, as advocates of transhumanism, see the list of transhumanists.

While many transhumanist theorists and advocates seek to apply reason, science and technology for the purposes of reducing poverty, disease, disability and malnutrition around the globe, transhumanism is distinctive in its particular focus on the applications of technologies to the improvement of human bodies at the individual level. Many transhumanists actively assess the potential for future technologies and innovative social systems to improve the quality of all life, while seeking to make the material reality of the human condition fulfill the promise of legal and political equality by eliminating congenital mental and physical barriers.

Transhumanist philosophers argue that there not only exists an ethical imperative for humans to strive for progress and improvement of the human condition but that it is possible and desirable for humanity to enter a post-Darwinian phase of existence, in which humans are in control of their own evolution. In such a phase, natural evolution would be replaced with deliberate change. To this end, transhumanists engage in interdisciplinary approaches to understanding and evaluating possibilities for overcoming biological limitations. They draw on futures studies and various fields or subfields of science, philosophy, economics, history, and sociology. Unlike philosophers, social critics and activists who place a moral value on preservation of natural systems, transhumanists see the very concept of the "natural" as an obstacle to progress. In keeping with this, many prominent transhumanist advocates refer to transhumanism's critics on the political right and left jointly as "bioconservatives" or "bioluddites", the latter term alluding to the nineteenth century anti-industrialisation social movement that opposed the replacement of manual labor by machines.

Converging Technologies, a 2002 report exploring the potential for synergy among nano-, bio-, informational and cognitive technologies (NBIC) for enhancing human performance.While some transhumanists take a relatively abstract and theoretical approach to the perceived benefits of emerging technologies, others have offered specific proposals for modifications to the human body, including inheritable ones. Transhumanists are often concerned with methods of enhancing the human nervous system. Though some propose modification of the peripheral nervous system, the brain is considered the common denominator of personhood and is thus a primary focus of transhumanist ambitions. More generally, transhumanists support the convergence of emerging technologies such as nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive science (NBIC), and hypothetical future technologies such as simulated reality, artificial intelligence, mind uploading, and cryonics. Transhumanists believe that humans can and should use these technologies to become more than human. Transhumanists therefore support the recognition or protection of cognitive liberty, morphological freedom and procreative liberty as civil liberties, so as to guarantee individuals the choice of enhancing themselves and progressively become posthuman, which they see as the next significant evolutionary steps for the human species. Some speculate that human enhancement techniques and other emerging technologies may facilitate such a transformation by the midpoint of the twenty first century.

A 2002 report, Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance, commissioned by the U.S. National Science Foundation and Department of Commerce, contains descriptions and commentaries on the state of NBIC science and technology by major contributors to these fields. The report discusses potential uses of these technologies in implementing transhumanist goals of enhanced performance and health, and ongoing work on planned applications of human enhancement technologies in the military and in the rationalization of the human-machine interface in industry.

Some theorists, such as Raymond Kurzweil, believe that the pace of technological evolution is accelerating and that the next fifty years may yield not only radical technological advances but possibly a technological singularity, which may fundamentally change the nature of human beings. Transhumanists who foresee this massive technological change generally maintain that it is desirable. However, they also explore the possible dangers of extremely rapid technological change, and frequently propose options for ensuring that advanced technology is used responsibly. For example, Bostrom has written extensively on existential risks to humanity's future welfare, including risks that could be created by emerging technologies.

On a more practical level, as proponents of personal development and body modification, transhumanists tend to use existing technologies and techniques that supposedly improve cognitive and physical performance, while engaging in routines and lifestyles designed to improve health and longevity. Depending on their age, some transhumanists express concern that they will not live to reap the benefits of future technologies. However, many have a great interest in life extension practices, and funding research in cryonics in order to make the latter a viable option of last resort rather than remaining an unproven method. Regional and global transhumanist networks and communities with a range of objectives exist to provide support and forums for discussion and collaborative projects.

There is a variety of opinion within transhumanist thought. Many of the leading transhumanist thinkers hold complex and subtle views that are under constant revision and development. Some distinctive currents of transhumanism are identified and listed here in alphabetical order:

Although some transhumanists report a very strong sense of spirituality, they are for the most part secular. In fact, many transhumanists are either agnostics or atheists. A minority, however, follow liberal forms of Eastern philosophical traditions or, as with Mormon transhumanists, have merged their beliefs with established religions.

Despite the prevailing secular attitude, some transhumanists pursue hopes traditionally espoused by religions, such as immortality albeit a physical one. Several belief systems, termed new religious movements, originating in the late twentieth century, share with transhumanism the goals of transcending the human condition by applying technology to the alteration of the body (Ralism) and mind (Scientology). While most thinkers associated with the transhumanist movement focus on the practical goals of using technology to help achieve longer and healthier lives, some speculate that future understanding of neurotheology will enable humans to achieve control of altered states of consciousness and thus "spiritual" experiences. A continuing dialogue between transhumanism and faith was the focus of an academic seminar held at the University of Toronto in 2004.

The majority of transhumanists are materialists who do not believe in a transcendent human soul. Transhumanist personhood theory also argues against the unique identification of moral actors and subjects with biological humans, judging as speciesist the exclusion of nonhuman and part-human animals, and sophisticated machines, from ethical consideration. Many believe in the compatibility of human minds with computer hardware, with the theoretical implication that human consciousness may someday be transferred to alternative media.

One extreme formulation of this idea is Frank Tipler's proposal of the Omega Point. Drawing upon ideas in physics, computer science and physical cosmology, Tipler advanced the notion that the collapse of the Universe billions of years hence could create the conditions for the perpetuation of humanity as a simulation within a megacomputer. Cosmologist George Ellis has called Tipler's book "a masterpiece of pseudoscience", and Michael Shermer devoted a chapter of Why People Believe Weird Things to enumerating perceived flaws in Tipler's thesis.

For more details on this topic, see Transhumanism in fiction. Transhumanist themes have become increasingly prominent in various literary forms during the period in which the movement itself has emerged. Contemporary science fiction often contains positive renditions of technologically enhanced human life, set in utopian (especially techno-utopian) societies. However, science fiction's depictions of technologically enhanced humans or other posthuman beings frequently come with a cautionary twist. The more pessimistic scenarios include many horrific or dystopian tales of human bioengineering gone wrong.

The cyberpunk genre, exemplified by William Gibson's Neuromancer (1984) and Bruce Sterling's Schismatrix (1985), has particularly been concerned with the modification of human bodies. Other novels dealing with transhumanist themes that have stimulated broad discussion of these issues include Blood Music (1985) by Greg Bear, The Xenogenesis Trilogy (19871989) by Octavia Butler; the "Culture" novels (19872000) of Iain Banks; The Beggar's Trilogy (199094) by Nancy Kress; much of Greg Egan's work since the early 1990s, such as Permutation City (1994) and Diaspora (1997); The Bohr Maker (1995) by Linda Nagata; Extensa (2002) and Perfekcyjna niedoskonao (2003) by Jacek Dukaj; Oryx and Crake (2003) by Margaret Atwood; Altered Carbon by Richard Morgan (2002); and The Possibility of an Island (Eng. trans. 2006) by Michel Houellebecq.

Fictional transhumanist scenarios have also become popular in other media during the late twentieth and early twenty first centuries. Such treatments are found in films (Star Trek: The Motion Picture, 1979; Blade Runner, 1982; Gattaca, 1997), television series (the Ancients of Stargate SG-1, the Borg of Star Trek, the Nietzscheans of Andromeda), manga and anime (Ghost in the Shell), role-playing games (Transhuman Space) and computer games (Deus Ex, Half-Life 2, Command & Conquer). The fictional universe of the table top war game Warhammer 40,000 also makes use of genetic and cybernetic augmentation. Human characters of the Imperium often employ cybernetic devices, while the Space Marines are indeed posthuman. Many of these works are considered part of the cyberpunk genre or its postcyberpunk offshoot.

In addition to the work of Natasha Vita-More, mentioned above, transhumanism has been represented in the visual and performing arts by Carnal Art, a form of sculpture originated by the French artist Orlan that uses the body as its medium and plastic surgery as its method. The American performer Michael Jackson used technologies such as plastic surgery, skin-lightening drugs and hyperbaric oxygen treatment over the course of his career, with the effect of transforming his artistic persona so as to blur identifiers of gender, race and age. The work of the Australian artist Stelarc centers on the alteration of his body by robotic prostheses and tissue engineering. Other artists whose work coincided with the emergence and flourishing of transhumanism and who explored themes related to the transformation of the body are the Yugoslavian performance artist Marina Abramovic and the American media artist Matthew Barney. A 2005 show, Becoming Animal, at the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art, presented exhibits by twelve artists whose work concerns the effects of technology in erasing boundaries between the human and non-human.

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Many cults use ways of trying to keep the truth about their organizations hidden from the rest of the world. Some rely on suing the bejezus out of dissidents; others rely on mass suicide, shootouts with the feds, creating their own uncritical media outlets, putting rattlesnakes in mailboxes, or getting into high office. However, Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh decided to take the opposite approach, which led him to establish a community that was relatively peaceful right up until the moment he decided to attempt to overthrow the Governor of Oregon[citationneeded] and launch a bioterror attack. Rajneesh actually flaunted the fact that he exploited his followers. While he opened a collective in Oregon where his followers toiled in the fields, he managed to gain power of attorney over them and used nearly all their money to purchase a fleet of Rolls-Royce automobiles and drove them around the compound. His Oregon commune actually managed to legally incorporate as the town of Rajneeshpuram. His teachings, a syncretic mix of Buddhism, free love, encounter groups, and the Human Potential Movement, included prophecies of a world nuclear war sometime in the 1990s and the death of 2/3 of the world's population from AIDS. Eventually the U.S. government looked into his group after his followers were caught surreptitiously spraying bacteria on the salad bars of local restaurants in an effort to make the local population sick, and shut it down. The group used this attack to poison the local population before a local election in an attempt to seize power. This plot was, in effect, an attempted coup d'tat against the municipal government of The Dalles, Oregon.In 1985, the group attempted to assassinate Charles Turner, the Oregon District Attorney. Rajneesh was deported to India as part of a plea bargain during which he received a 10-year suspended sentence for immigration law violations. He died in 1990[1].

He got quite a few followers in Australia, particularly in Fremantle, Western Australia, where they fit right in with the other duplicitous business hippie scum and are all but mainstream.

Following the breakup of his Oregon commune and his deportation to India, he dropped the Bhagwan Sree Rajneesh name and became known as Osho. Osho's books on such subjects as Zen and meditation[note 2] have since become staples in New Age bookstores.

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Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh - RationalWiki

Indian cult leader Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh created the spiritual practice of dynamic meditation. He started the Rancho Rajneesh commune in Oregon in the 1980s.

Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, later known as "Osho," was born December 11, 1931, in Kuchwada, India. After graduating from college and claiming to have found enlightenment, in 1970, he introduced the practice of "dynamic meditation," became a spiritual teacher and began to attract a significant following. When his controversial teachings put him repeatedly in conflict with Indian authorities, Rajneesh and his followers fled to a ranch in Oregon, where they attempted to establish a commune. Conflicts with the local community there resulted in Rajneesh and members of his group turning to crime to achieve their ends, however, and in 1985 Rajneesh was arrested for immigration fraud. After pleading guilty, he was deported to India. He died on January 19, 1990, in Pune, India.

Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (n Chandra Mohan Jain)was born on December 11, 1931, in Kuchwada, India. He lived with his grandparents during his early youth and then with his parents and was an intelligent but rebellious child. In 1951, Rajneesh graduated from high school and started attending Hitkarini College in Jabalpur but was forced to transfer to D.N. Jain College after his disruptive behavior put him at odds with one of his professors. In 1953, after taking a year off from his studies to soul search and meditate, Rajneesh claimed that he had achieved enlightenment. He returned to school, however, and after graduating with a bachelor's degree in philosophy, he went on to pursue a master's in philosophy at Sagar University. Following his graduation in 1957, Rajneesh accepted a position as an assistant professor of philosophy at Raipur Sanskrit College, but his radical ideas soon put him at odds with the institution's administration and he was forced to find work elsewhere, eventually becoming a professor at the University of Jabalpur.

Concurrent with his teaching at the University of Jabalpur, Rajneesh traveled throughout India, spreading his unconventional and controversial ideas about spirituality. Among his teachings was the notion that sex was the first step toward achieving "superconsciousness." By 1964, he started conducting meditation camps and recruiting followers, and two years later he resigned from his professorship to focus more fully on spreading his spiritual teachings. In the process he became something of a pariah and earned himself the nickname "the sex guru."

In 1970, Rajneesh introduced the practice of "dynamic meditation," which, he asserted, enables people to experience divinity. The prospect enticed young Westerners to come reside at his ashram in Pune, India, and become Rajneesh's devout disciples, called sannyasins. In their quest for spiritual enlightenment, Rajneesh's followers took new Indian names, dressed in orange and red clothes, and participated in group sessions that sometimes involved both violence and sexual promiscuity. By the late 1970s, the six-acre ashram was so overcrowded that Rajneesh sought a new site to relocate to. However, hismovement had become so controversial that the local government threw up various roadblocks to make things difficult for him. Tensions came to a head in 1980, when a Hindu fundamentalist attempted to assassinate Rajneesh.

Facing ongoing pressure from government authorities and traditional religious groups, in 1981 Rajneesh fled to the United States with 2,000 of his disciples, settling on a 100-square-mile ranch in central Oregon, which he named Rancho Rajneesh. There, Rajneesh and the sannyasins started building their own city, called Rajneeshpuram. Disapproving neighbors contacted local officials in an attempt to close down Rajneeshpuram, asserting that it violated Oregon's land-use laws, but Rajneesh was victorious in court and continued to expand the commune.

As tensions between the commune and the local government community increased, Rajneesh and his followers soon turned to more drastic measures to achieve their ends. including murder, wiretapping, voter fraud, arson and a mass salmonella poisoning in 1984 that affected more than 700 people. After several of his commune leaders fled to avoid prosecution for their crimes, in 1985, police arrested Rajneesh, who was himself attempting to flee the United States to escape charges of immigration fraud. During his subsequent trial, Rajneesh pleaded guilty of immigration charges, realizing that a plea bargain was the only way he'd be allowed to return to India.

After pleading guilty, Rajneesh returned to India, where he found the number of his followers had significantly decreased. In the coming months, he searched unsuccessfully for a place to reestablish his ashram. He was denied entry into numerous countries before returning again to India in 1986.

During the next few years he continued to teach and renamed himself Osho, but his health began to decline. On January 19, 1990, he died of heart failure at one of his few remaining communes in Pune, India. Following his death, the commune was renamed the Osho Institute, and then later the Osho International Meditation Resort, which is currently estimated to attract as many as 200,000 visitors a year. Osho's followers also continue to spread his beliefs from one of the hundreds of Osho Mediation Centers that they have opened in major cities across the globe.

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Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh - biography.com

Rajneesh

An Oregonian

special report

The appeal of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh isn't easy to explain.

He had no doctrine. He promoted religiousness while disdaining formalized religion.

Oregonians were baffled by the thousands flocking to his eastern Oregon commune for spiritual sustenance.

These were not uneducated masses seeking escape from poverty or oppression. Studies of his sect in Oregon showed a high percentage of well-educated sannyasins. Many were professionals: engineers, lawyers, doctors, physicists.

"What I am teaching is religiousness, a quality," Rajneesh once explained. "Religion is a dead dogma, fixed principles, frozen fossils. What I am teaching to you is a living, flowing religiousness -- an experience like love."

Rajneesh believed each person could become enlightened, as he had at age 21. That, Rajneesh said, required shedding the shackles of modern life, both physically and psychologically. Each person could become their own deity, their own version of Jesus or Buddha.

That path coursed through group therapies, meditations and Rajneesh's daily lectures. He blended Eastern mysticism with Western psychology.

For sannyasins, Rajneesh's lectures pointed the way to a more satisfying life, what some referred to as the "utopian ideal." The message was particularly potent among those who concluded there had to be a better life than one filled with tragedies, stresses and conflicts.

Not all stayed. Some left, believing he was a manipulator, a narcissist. They believed in the message, not the man.

Sociologists and religious scholars outside the movement still debate its merits. Some judge Rajneesh one of the great spiritual leaders of the world. Others consider him a charlatan, with a message so changeable as to be meaningless.

Sannyasin groups still operate in several U.S. cities and many countries. What is considered the leading organization remains based in India, still offering therapies and publishing in book form transcriptions of Rajneesh's lectures.

Six million volumes have been sold.

-- Les Zaitz: email him at specialreport@oregonian.com; visit the Rajneesh Report page on Facebook

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