Last Friday I had the opportunity to check out the Landmark Forum seminar. Many of you have probably heard about their work, and if you havent they are a personal development company that puts on seminars around the world.This was a three day seminar which was held between the hours of 9am and 10pm Friday, Saturday and Sunday. You are given two half hour breaks every 2.5 hours and then a 1.5 dinner break over the course of the 13 hour day.

My course leader was a fine gentlemen named Barry Terry from Virginia. He had supposedly been a senior trainer for a couple decades and was self-proclaimed as excellent and one of the best in his field. I was excited to take part in the event and sat down in a large hall filled with a 100 other strangers. We all sat in positive anticipating for the intellectual insight that was supposedly coming our way. And boy, were we left disappointed!

We sat in very uncomfortable chairs that were spaced very closely together. The chairs were positioned six aside in each row with a path separating the two sides where Barry Terry would attempt to mesmerize the crowd over the next couple of days. Now take in mind that this was a large hall that could have easily fit double the crowd, so there was plenty of space in this room to move the chairs around to allow for more comfort, but for some reason they thoughtplacing us shoulder to shoulder was more appropriate. It made economy seating on an airplane seem spacious. For a weekend long seminar that costs $650 for the three days you think they would provide you at least a little bit of physical comfort to help the information sink in. Their common solution to this nagging discomfort was to stand in the back corner of the room from time to time stretching out your muscle pain from their agonizing chair layout.

Top 5 Fails of Landmark Forum

1# For Fucks Sake, save your $650 and read The Power of NowandThe Biology of Belief, and mix that new knowledge withtaking responsibility for the wrongs you have made in the past by saying sorry and moving forward in life. This will run you fora grand total of $25 on amazon.com ($625 worth of savings, not to mention saving you from high levels of frustration). For you brave souls out there who are now wondering about amends, well, that doesnt costs you anything but effort. Yes, I know this complex approach of reparation that is so unfamiliar to the masses, but trust me when I say IT WORKS (and often cost you nothing). Taking responsibility for the things you have done wrong in life and now apologizing for your part is an invaluable experience.

2# Instead of answering direct questions from the crowd, the fast talking forum leader consistently chose to speak around any question he was unsure of and provide a completely unhelpful answer to the crowd instead. Heaven forbid he broke his own racket of inferiority and simply stated, Im not sure, but I could find out for you when he was asked a question he couldnt earnestly answer. Now Barry Terry, I guess they dont teach about ego not being your amigo in leader training.

3# Making people speak in front of a crowd they werent comfortable with, coercing them to disclose person information to get down to the hard truths of their problematic lives, because this would solve their problems. Keep in mind we are talking about people who had been raped, recently gone bankrupt, and others who were physically/emotionally abused, life shattering trauma. Barry convinced the crowd that they were safe and the people in the course wouldnt take any of their deeply personal stories out of the room with them (no, that would never happen now, would it?). Non-dislosure agreements of course were nowhere to be seen, but a simple bold statement of trust would be all these innocent people would need to be secure (you can trust me guys, just take the blue pill, lol).

#4 This one still might be my favourite, even thoughknow how much you guys love to save a dollar or two from point #1! Now, after these paying customers divulged very scarring personal information about themselves to the crowd, Barry Terry in all his mighty arrogance would label these people as crazy and laugh at them. Claiming it was their bad or mistake for these choices they had made in front of 100 strangers. Keep in mind, some of these things could happened at a very young age with an undeveloped mind/brain, at a complete innocent state. I may not know very much in life, but one thing I do know is that forcing someone to instantly get over fears of public speaking by exposing life traumas to a crowd, while being told theircrazy from aself-proclaimed mindset leader isnt a winner formula. Fortunately for Barry Terry I wasnt one of those lucky few who got publicly lambasted or else he might have left Canada with a few missing teeth. I will admit it has been a couple years since I have taken a psychology course at the University level, but I dont ever recall reading about the benefits of public humiliation as a useful tool in behaviour change.

#5 Course leaders dominated their co-workers with what seemed to be a subservient regime. Remember that we are supposedly at a seminar where they are guiding you to a higher, better level of life, and in order to complete your pasts you need to enrol others in your bright future. It really is an incredible business model of free marketing and labor. Yet, when it came to these second-class worker-bees who did most of the work to begin with, they seemed to walkaround the room with little to no self-confidence of their own. Every few minutes looking back to the higher-ups to seek validation and direction as if they were a pack of defeated dogs looking back to their Alpha leader. It was really sad. I felt like they had drank the kool-aid and didnt even know it.

BONUS FAIL: After communicating to the course leader that I was receiving little to no value with the course on multiple occasions she finally agreed to connect with me the following Monday. I would be taken care of as she described it in her own words. This course leader preachedthe importance of integrity and willingness in our own lives, and somehow Monday turned intoThursday and I still havent heard one word from her. This was asolidifying moment for my sad experience at the Landmark Forum!

I can only hope that you trust that there are several other ways to obtain the knowledge that is so highly sought after in Landmark. Their work is hardly original and anyone who makes such a claim is participating a racket of their own!

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The Landmark Forum - Don't Do It - Growth Guided

Zig Ziglar was the undisputed king of motivation. He was known for packing large auditoriums with raving fans. He wrote more than two dozen books on salesmanship and motivation over five decades.

He is probably mostly known, though for his message about have a positive attitude. He spread his message through stories punctuated with short quotes that became legendary among his followers.

While some would wonder what the true definition of success is, Ziglar made it crystal clear:

Success is the maximum utilization of the ability that you have.

Hey Zig is motivation permanent?

Of course motivation is not permanent. But then, neither is bathing; but it is something you should do on a regular basis."

How do you define failure:

Failure is a detour, not a dead-end street."

While most of us start our day with an alarm clock, Mr Ziglar would insist that he woke up to an "opportunity clock!" Furthermore, "if you aren't on fire" when you get to work, "then your wood is wet." And you have to remember that "money's not the most important thing in life, but it's reasonably close to oxygen."

All of this would mean less if Ziglar had an easy life. Although you would never hear him complain about his plight, facts would suggest that things were not ideal for a young boy growing up in Yazoo City, Mississippi.

He was raised by a single parent, Hilary Hinton Ziglar, who was the 10th of 12 children. Being raised without his father was nothing you would ever hear Zig talked about. Instead he described his mother as the foremost influence on his life; she was a strict and devout woman whose mental storehouse of adages remained a cornerstone of Mr. Ziglar's speeches and writings.

After Navy service at the end in World War II, he was married in 1946 to Jean Abernathy.

When I talk about her, I refer to her as the red head. When I talk to her I call her sugar baby.

Zig celebrated each day with a positive attitude. He believed it whole heartedly. He implored people that their life could change if they would change their response to the question " How are you doing today? "Zig would tell his followers to say

Outstanding but I am improving."

He didn't believe in cold calls, instead they were warm calls. When asked if all of this changing of words was really necessary. He would simply reply. "No, you can be mediocre without it."

More bits of Ziglar wisdom:

You never judge a day by the weather!"

If you're going to have to swallow a frog, you don't want to have to look at that sucker too long!

You can get everything in life you want if you will just help enough other people get what they want

The more you gripe about your problems, the more problems you have to gripe about!

All of this homespun wisdom undeniably makes us better at what we do. One of my favorite Zig quotes about positive thinking:

Positive thinking will not help you do anything! But, it will help you do EVERYTHING better than negative thinking will.

That really explains the success of Zig Ziglar. What a great way to see the world. Although there have been other "positive thinkers" none of them were the supreme communicator that he was. In our NLP, Hypnosis and Sales training, we teach our students that the most powerful form of persuasion is found within stories and metaphors. Zig was the master of both Don't take our word for it, lets hear Zig tell the story like only he can.

WANT TO DISCOVER MORE?

As you already know, Zig Ziglar inspired the I.S.P.I. Mr. Ziglar taught the world about sales and the Institute for the Studies of Professional Influence will forever be in his debt.

It is with in this spirit that we have created the certified course "Professional Influence." You might have already heard that our trainers will actually show you how to formulate "contrast options" into your specific products and services. You may already know, by now, that employers are attracted to people that are different, new and unique. Today we have overwhelming scientific proof that sales people that differentiate themselves from the crowd are more successful. They are more likely to close that sale, get that promotion and have longer lasting relationships.

THIS IS THE NEXT LEVEL OF SALES TRAINING!

Show your employer that you are deadly serious about reaching the companies goals. Increase your income and line yourself up for the next big promotion. All of this can and will be achieved when you enroll in the "Professional Influence Certification Course."

Upon successful completion of this course you will become CERTIFIED! Your certification goes on the "BIO" page and is registered with the INSTITUTE FOR THE STUDIES OF PROFESSIONAL INFLUENCE (ISPI). As you read through this you may begin to realize that a link to this bio page can also be a powerful part of your resume.

Are you ready to take your game to the next level? If so email us at This e-mail address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it . For more information about this and other certification courses simply click here.

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Lessons from Zig Ziglar - Positive Attitude

2010Selfhelp launches its internationally acclaimed Virtual Senior Center in collaboration with Microsoft, the NYC Department for the Aging and the NYC Department of Information Technology & Telecommunications. This transformational program now serves 275 seniors in six locations.

2011Selfhelp commemorates its 75th year of service. Among the many events held was Selfhelp's Fourth International Conference for Professionals Working with Holocaust Survivors.

2012Selfhelp brings Witness Theater to New York, partnering with the Yeshivah of Flatbush High School. An innovative and emotional, full-year "journey" for Holocaust survivors and high school students, Witness Theater began in Israel by JDC-Eshel. Today five schools are participating with 11 performances and a live internet stream.

2013In collaboration with UJA-Federation and the Defiant Requiem Foundation, Selfhelp participated in bringing The Defiant RequiemVerdi at Terezn to Lincoln Center to raise funds and awareness for New York's Holocaust survivors in need. So successful was this event, that an encore performance took place in March, 2015.

Selfhelp expands its affordable housing portfolio to Long Island through an affiliation with the Kimmel Housing Development Foundation. Two affordable housing developments, as well as three Selfhelp programs are housed at the Westbury site.

2014Selfhelp opens its seventh affordable housing residence, featuring innovative aging services technology, a recreational green roof and an on-site health and wellness facility.

2015Unprecedented new funding from the NY City Council and the Federal Government is awarded to support the needs of Holocaust survivors. Selfhelp is a primary beneficiary.

Selfhelp's Housing with Services model is internationally recognized. CEO Stuart C. Kaplan addresses the International Association of Homes and Services for the Aging's International Conference in Australia.

2016Selfhelp marks its 80th year of service by opening its tenth affordable housing residence, hosting two professional conferences, and forming a Chinese Advisory Council to raise awareness of our programs serving Chinese elders. As the largest provider of comprehensive services to Holocaust survivors in North America, we remain true to our mission of serving as "the last surviving relative to our historic constituency." Our broad spectrum of programs now serves 20,000 older adults throughout New York City and Nassau County.

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The scientist Charles Darwin had awakened the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche from his dogmatic slumber by the realization that, throughout organic history, no species is immutable (including our own). Pervasive change replaced eternal fixity. Going beyond Darwin, the German thinker offered an interpretation of dynamic nature that considered both the philosophical implications and theological consequences of taking the fact of biological evolution seriously.

Nietzsche was not previously oblivious to either geological time or the paleontological record. He accepted the most controversial ramification of Darwins theory: humankind had evolved from remote apelike ancestors, in a completely naturalistic way, through a process of chance and necessity (fortuitous random variations appearing in, and inevitable natural selection acting on, individuals within a changing environment). Even the mental faculties of human beings, including love and reason, were acquired during the course of evolutionary ascent from earlier primate forms.

For Nietzsche, evolution is the correct explanation for organic history but it results in a disastrous picture of reality, since evolution (as he saw it) has far-reaching truths for both scientific cosmology and philosophical anthropology: God is no longer necessary to account for either the existence of this universe or the emergence of our species from prehistoric animals. In fact, this philosopher held that Darwinian evolution led to a collapse of all traditional values, because both objective meaning and spiritual purpose had vanished from reality (and consequently, there can be no fixed or certain morality).

Nietzsche knew that the previous philosophical systems from Plato and Aristotle to Kant and Hegel were inadequate to deal with the crisis of evolution. As a result, a totally new philosophy of the world was now required. Nietzsche offered an interpretation of reality that accepted the fluidity of nature, species, ideas, beliefs and values. Furthermore, he held that it is nonsense to think that the fact of evolution can ever be taught as if it were a religion (since the process of evolution contains nothing that is stable or eternal or spiritual).

One can imagine Nietzsches tirades against the biblical fundamentalism and so-called scientific creationism that have threatened science and reason during the twentieth century. An atheist, Nietzsche would have also abhorred Stephen J. Gould for upholding an unwarranted dualistic ontology which supports both the natural world of the scientist and the transcendent realm of the theologian. Instead, as a monist, he would have admired Richard Dawkins and Daniel C. Dennett for their strictly naturalistic framework, which gives no credence to supernaturalism.

Nietzsche had assumed that the outcome of Darwinian evolution could only account for the success of inferior (weak and mediocre) forms of life simply in terms of sheer numbers, e.g., the ubiquitous viruses, bacteria, insects and fishes. The philosopher argued that Darwins blind speciesstruggle of the masses for existence needed to be replaced by his own discovery of the individual-struggle of a few for selfcreation and excellence.

Nietzsche saw the explanatory mechanism of natural selection as merely accounting for the quantity of species within organic history, but (for him) it is a vitalistic force that increases the quality of life forms throughout progressive biological evolution. He held that nature is essentially the will to power. Evolving life is not merely the Spencerian/Darwinian struggle for existence but, more importantly, it is the ongoing striving toward ever-greater complexity, diversity, multiplicity and creativity. In short, reminiscent of the interpretations offered by Lamarck and Henri Bergson (among others), Nietzsches vitalism had substituted Darwins adaptive fitness with creative power.

The philosopher held that the evolution of organisms had its origin in primordial slime, but our species now stands high and proud on the pyramid of life. Even so, he saw a natural tendency for the human animal to evolve toward common mediocrity. But, through the will to power, superior individuals have the potential to master their lives (overcoming nihilism and pessimism) and the intellect to actualize creative activity.

As with Thomas Huxley, Ernst Haeckel and Darwin himself, Nietzsche taught the historical continuity between human beings and other animals (especially the chimpanzees). However, the philosopher did assert that some individuals will rise far above the beasts, including our own species, but this will only occur in the remote future.

If our species has ascended from the fossil apes, then why should it not be followed by an even higher form of life as the ape has been surpassed by the human animal of today? According to Nietzsche, our biological species is the meaning and purpose of the earth so far, because it is the arrow pointing from the past ape to the future overman; this exalted but unimaginable being will be as intellectually advanced beyond the present human animal as our species is biologically advanced beyond the lowly worm!

For Nietzsche, the aesthetic evolutionist as sculptor, the coming overman is like an ideal image sleeping in a crude rock. In carving this superior being, the philosopher was guided by its shadow, although he remained indifferent to the destruction resulting from his intense creativity: Fragments fly from the stone; what is that to me?

Unlike the silenced priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a geopaleontologist and Jesuit mystic, Nietzsche did not foresee a final end-goal or an ultimate omega point for human evolution. Instead, his metaphysics is grounded in the eternal recurrence of this same universe, i.e., an infinite series of identical cosmic cycles. As such, there is no progressive evolution from universe to universe. Consequently, Nietzsches process cosmology represents being as becoming, and its teleological evolution to the overman within each cycle is strictly determined.

Nietzsche did not speculate on life or intelligence or exoevolution elsewhere in this universe. Furthermore, this philosopher could not have imagined mass extinctions, nanotechnology, genetic engineering, artificial intelligence, and human space travel to other planets. Clearly, continuing advances in science and technology will offer awesome possibilities for neolife and overbeings in the ages ahead.

Friedrich Nietzsche had taken time, change and evolution seriously. He was acutely aware that this universe is totally indifferent to human existence. Yet, his philosophy offers an optimistic challenge for those who are willing to follow the lightning bolts of his heroic vision.

H. James Birx 2000

H. James Birx, Interpreting Evolution: Darwin & Teilhard de Chardin, Prometheus, 1991.Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883-1885),Prometheus, 1993, esp. pp.13-27.Keith Ansell Pearson, Viroid Life: Perspectives on Nietzsche and the Transhuman Condition, Routledge, 1997.Peter Poellner, Nietzsche and Metaphysics, OUP, 1995.Eric Steinhart, On Nietzsche, Wadsworth, 2000.Irving M. Zeitlin, Nietzsche: A Re-examination, Polity, 1994.

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Nietzsche & Evolution | Issue 29 | Philosophy Now

Some of us (guilty!) are capable of putting away an entire batch of gooey, ...

Some of us (guilty!) are capable of putting away an entire batch of gooey, chocolatey brownies in one sitting. Hey, it happens. Present me with a tray boasting bittersweet chocolate, sugar, and butter, and Ill show up with the oven mitts, ready to dig in. So I was intrigued by this brownie recipe with a surprising secret ingredient that makes the result a little healthier: rye flour. Rye is a whole grain that may actually cause you to nibble less than traditional wheat flour, explains Health's contributing nutrition editor Cynthia Sass, MPH, RD. Research has shown that compared to wheat, rye triggers a lower insulin response, boosts post-meal fullness, and can result in naturally eating less at the following meal, she adds. (Just remember that rye is not gluten-free. If you have celiac disease or gluten sensitivity, rye is off the menu, says Sass.) RELATED: 13 Sugar-Free Dessert Recipes That Will Actually Satisfy Your Sweet Tooth Unfortunately, even the addition of rye flour doesnt exactly transform brownies into a health food. But a single square serving of this lightened-up version of our favorite chocolate treat is actually half the calories of a brownie found at Starbucks. If youre looking for a decadent dessert option thats still nutritious, these delicious, fudgy rye brownies are the answer to all your potlucks, office parties, and housewarmings. Trust us.

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Gautama Buddha[note 3] (c. 563/480 c. 483/400 BCE), also known as Siddhrtha Gautama,[note 4] Shakyamuni (ie "Sage of the Shakyas") Buddha,[note 5] or simply the Buddha, after the title of Buddha, was an ascetic (ramaa) and sage, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[5] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in the eastern part of ancient India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.[note 6]

Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the ramaa movement common in his region. He later taught throughout other regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala.

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism. He is believed by Buddhists to be an enlightened teacher who attained full Buddhahood and shared his insights to help sentient beings end rebirth and suffering. Accounts of his life, discourses and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarised after his death and memorised by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.

In Vaishnava Hinduism, the historic Buddha is considered to be an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu.[9] Of the ten major avatars of Vishnu, Vaishnavites believe Gautama Buddha to be the ninth and most recent incarnation.[10][11]

Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most people accept that the Buddha lived, taught, and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara (c.558 c.491 BCE, or c. 400 BCE),[12][13][14] the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatasatru, who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara. Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of influential ramaa schools of thought like jvika, Crvka, Jainism, and Ajana. Brahmajala Sutta records sixty-two such schools of thought. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira (referred to as 'Nigantha Nataputta' in Pali Canon),[18] Praa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosla, Ajita Kesakambal, Pakudha Kaccyana, and Sajaya Belahaputta, as recorded in Samaaphala Sutta, whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with.[note 7] Indeed, Sariputta and Moggallna, two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sajaya Belahaputta, the sceptic; and the Pali canon frequently depicts Buddha engaging in debate with the adherents of rival schools of thought. There is also philological evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques. Thus, Buddha was just one of the many ramaa philosophers of that time. In an era where holiness of person was judged by their level of asceticism, Buddha was a reformist within the ramaa movement, rather than a reactionary against Vedic Brahminism. While the general sequence of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted,[pageneeded] there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies.

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE. More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[note 6] These alternative chronologies, however, have not been accepted by all historians.[note 8]

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhrtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the eastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. It was either a small republic, or an oligarchy, and his father was an elected chieftain, or oligarch. According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, now in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilvastu, which may have been either in what is present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1] He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagar.

No written records about Gautama were found from his lifetime or from the one or two centuries thereafter. In the middle of the 3rd century BCE, several Edicts of Ashoka (reigned c. 269232 BCE) mention the Buddha, and particularly Ashoka's Rummindei Minor Pillar Edict commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to Lumbini as the Buddha's birthplace. Another one of his edicts (Minor Rock Edict No. 3) mentions the titles of several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era. These texts may be the precursor of the Pli Canon.[63] [note 10] The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Gndhr language using the Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.[64]

On the basis of philological evidence, Indologist and Pali expert Oskar von Hinber says that some of the Pali suttas have retained very archaic place-names, syntax, and historical data from close to the Buddha's lifetime, including the Mahparinibba Sutta which contains a detailed account of the Buddha's final days. Hinber proposes a composition date of no later than 350320 BCE for this text, which would allow for a "true historical memory" of the events approximately 60 years prior if the Short Chronology for the Buddha's lifetime is accepted (but also reminds that such a text was originally intended more as hagiography than as an exact historical record of events).[65][66]

The sources for the life of Siddhrtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Stra, Mahvastu, and the Nidnakath. Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Avaghoa in the first century CE.[73] The Lalitavistara Stra is the next oldest biography, a Mahyna/Sarvstivda biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The Mahvastu from the Mahsghika Lokottaravda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhinikramaa Stra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidnakath is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoa.

From canonical sources come the Jataka tales, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123), which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jtakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The Mahpadna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the Tuita Heaven into his mother's womb.

In the earliest Buddhist texts, the nikyas and gamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbau)[78] nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahvastu.[78] In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing [79] while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhij).[80] The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a ramaa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty-five-year career as a teacher.[81]

Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma". Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhrtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahpurua, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahparinibbna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist. British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhrtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure. Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.

The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha.[note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, in present-day India, or Tilaurakot, in present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart.

Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,[note 12] the son of uddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan", whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya (Mydev), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilavastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal, Bangladesh, and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great sadhu. By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kondaa, the youngest, and later to be the first arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.

While later tradition and legend characterised uddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikvku (Pli: Okkka), many scholars think that uddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition. The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the ramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.

Maya's dream, Gandhara, 2nd century CE.

The Infant Buddha Taking A Bath, Gandhara 2nd Century CE.

Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati. By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. His father, said to be King uddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering. While uddhodana has traditionally been depicted as a king, and Siddhartha as his prince, more recent scholarship suggests the Shakya were in-fact organised as a semi-republican oligarchy rather than a monarchy.[102]

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaodhar (Pli: Yasodhar). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.

At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.

Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods" to prevent guards from knowing of his departure.

Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.

He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. ra Klma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rmaputra). With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.

According to the early Buddhist texts,[110] after realising that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists know as being, the Middle Way[110]a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as described in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which is regarded as the first discourse of the Buddha.[110] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[111] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[111]

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal treenow known as the Bodhi treein Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, ceased to stay with him, and went to somewhere else. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment,[113] and became known as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

According to some sutras of the Pali canon, at the time of his awakening he realised complete insight into the Four Noble Truths, thereby attaining liberation from samsara, the endless cycle of rebirth, suffering and dying again.[114][116] According to scholars, this story of the awakening and the stress on "liberating insight" is a later development in the Buddhist tradition, where the Buddha may have regarded the practice of dhyana as leading to nirvana and moksha.[114][note 13]

Nirvana is the extinguishing of the "fires" of desire, hatred, and ignorance, that keep the cycle of suffering and rebirth going.[119] Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain.[citation needed] In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.[citation needed]

According to a story in the ycana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1)a scripture found in the Pli and other canonsimmediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahm Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.

After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallikatwo merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistanwho became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first sagha: the company of Buddhist monks.

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty-four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.

For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have travelled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardisation.

The sangha travelled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vassa rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely travelled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.

The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha.

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

The Buddha is said to have replied:

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant nanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.[121] Mettanando and von Hinber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning.[122][123]

The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.

Waley suggests that Theravadins would take suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which can translate literally as pig-soft, to mean "soft flesh of a pig" or "pig's soft-food", that is, after Neumann, a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a truffle. He argues (also after Neumann) that as "(p)lant names tend to be local and dialectical", as there are several plants known to have suukara- (pig) as part of their names,[note 14] and as Pali Buddhism developed in an area remote from the Buddha's death, suukaramaddava could easily have been a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in Pali regions. Specifically, local writers writing soon after the Buddha's death knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who lived hundreds of years and hundreds of kilometres remote in time and space from the events described. Unaware that it may have been a local plant name and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly.

According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha died at Kuinra (present-day Kushinagar, India), which became a pilgrimage centre. Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuinra of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king and the appropriate place for him to die.

The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had and cleared them all in a way which others could not do. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things (Sakhra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhamm sakhr appamdena sampdeth'). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, the Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.

According to the Pli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dpavasa and Mahvasa, the coronation of Emperor Aoka (Pli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese ( and ), the coronation of Emperor Aoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor Aoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE. whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.

At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.

While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shkyamuni, Shkyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana nirvana as Arihant, Bhagav/Bhagavat/Bhagwn, Mahvira, Jina/Jinendra, Sstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathgata.

After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 stupas.[130] Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.

An extensive and colourful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry.[citation needed] He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general.[citation needed] He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".

The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115)

"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181)

A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.

Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaa Sutta (D, I:142). In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasha Gth ("The Lion of Men").[134]

Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.

Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhnusmti. The nine virtues are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka,[136] and include:

In the Pali Canon, the Buddha uses many Brahmanical devices. For example, in Samyutta Nikaya 111, Majjhima Nikaya 92 and Vinaya i 246 of the Pali Canon, the Buddha praises the Agnihotra as the foremost sacrifice and the Gayatri mantra as the foremost meter:

aggihuttamukh ya svitt chandaso mukham.

Sacrifices have the Agnihotra as foremost; of meter, the foremost is the Svitr.

One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest versions of the Pali Canon and other texts, such as the surviving portions of Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, Mahisasaka, Dharmaguptaka, and the Chinese Agamas.[citation needed] The reliability of these sources, and the possibility of drawing out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute.. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.[note 15]

According to Schmithausen, there are three positions held by scholars of Buddhism:

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight. Schmithausen notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.

According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyna, as a workable alternative to painful ascetic practices.[note 20] Bronkhorst agrees that Dhyna was a Buddhist invention,[pageneeded] whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices." Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.

According to the Mahsaccakasutta,[note 21] from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to.[pageneeded] According to Schmithausen and Bronkhorst, "liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism.[pageneeded] The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:

[T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path, which culminates in right samadhi.

Although "Nibbna" (Sanskrit: Nirvna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified.[note 22]

According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.

According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas[114][pageneeded] in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas. According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight". Gotama's teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person."

The three marks of existence[note 23] may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners.

The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic term; but its usage may have been common to the Sramana traditions.

In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight":

Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu.[note 11] However, Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and the concepts of Brahman-Atman.[165][166][167] Consequently Buddhism is generally classified as a nstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so"[note 24]) in contrast to the six orthodox schools of Hinduism.[170][171]

The Buddha is regarded as a prophet by the minority Ahmadiyya[173] sect of Muslimsa sect considered a deviant and rejected as apostate by mainstream Islam.[174][175] Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Laozi.

Disciples of the Cao i religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher. His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and Confucius.

The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Bdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph. The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha. Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November)though not in the Roman Missaland in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).

In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism, the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.[181]

In Sikhism, Buddha is mentioned as the 23rd avatar of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar, a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.[182]

Based on stone inscriptions, there is also speculation that Lumbei, Kapileswar village, Odisha, at the east coast of India, was the site of ancient Lumbini. Hartmann discusses the hypothesis and states, "The inscription has generally been considered spurious (...)" He quotes Sircar: "There can hardly be any doubt that the people responsible for the Kapilesvara inscription copied it from the said facsimile not much earlier than 1928."

Kapilavastu was the place where he grew up:[note 9]

Dhammika:"There is disagreement amongst scholars concerning which Pali suttas correspond to some of the text. Vinaya samukose: probably the Atthavasa Vagga, Anguttara Nikaya, 1:98100. Aliya vasani: either the Ariyavasa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, V:29, or the Ariyavamsa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, II: 2728. Anagata bhayani: probably the Anagata Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, III:100. Muni gatha: Muni Sutta, Sutta Nipata 207221. Upatisa pasine: Sariputta Sutta, Sutta Nipata 955975. Laghulavade: Rahulavada Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, I:421."

The Buddha

Early Buddhism

Buddhism general

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Gautama Buddha - Wikipedia

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Meditation Music:Our relaxing music is perfect for Deepak Chopra meditations, Buddhist meditation, Zen meditation, Mindfulness meditation and Eckhart Tolle meditation. This music is influenced by Japanese meditation music, Indian meditation music, Tibetan music and Shamanic music. Some benefits include cleansing the Chakra, opening the Third Eye and increasing Transcendental meditation skills. The work of Byron Katie, Sedona Method, Silva Method and the Secret highlights the fact that healing can occur through using the mind and being in the now. Healing Meditation can be practised using this music for best results.

Instrumental Music:YellowBrickCinemas Instrumental Music includes guitar music, piano music and flute music. Our instrumental music can be used for relaxation, study, meditation and stress relief.

Classical Music:Yellow Brick Cinemas Classical Music is ideal for studying, reading, sleeping (for adults and babies) and general relaxation. Weve compiled only the best quality music from some of the worlds most renowned composers such as Mozart, Beethoven, Vivaldi, Bach, Debussy, Brahms, Handel, Chopin, Schubert, Haydn, Dvorak, Schumann, Tchaikovsky and many more.

Spa and Massage Music:Our light spa music is useful after a long day of work to unwind and relax. The spa music, nature sounds, rain sounds, and easy listening instruments used in these tracks encourage ultimate relaxation. YellowBrickCinemas music is great for massage therapy, and our music will help you relax your mind and body.

Reiki & Zen Music:Our Reiki Music and Zen Music is ideal for Reiki healing sessions, and encouraging a state of Zen. Let the calming, subtle sounds take you to a higher state of consciousness, and allow you to give and receive powerful Reiki vibrations.

Yoga Music:Our calming music is useful for yoga for beginners, yoga exercises, yoga chants influenced by Indian songs, African music, and is soothing music which can enable you to go into a yoga trance. If you are familiar with the work of Yogscast, Hare Krishna, Michael Franti, and Keshna be sure to use this.

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8 Hour Deep Sleep Music: Delta Waves, Relaxing ... - YouTube

Meditation has become one of the most popular ways to relieve stress among people of all walks of life. This age-old practice, which can take many forms and may or may not be combined with many spiritual practices, can be used in several important ways.

A form of meditation can even be used for weight loss and healthier eating.

By learning to calm your body and mind, your physical and emotional stress can melt away. This leaves you feeling better, refreshed, and ready to face the challenges of your day with a healthy attitude. With regular practice over weeks or months, you can experience even greater benefits.

Meditation involves sitting in a relaxed position and clearing your mind, or focusing your mind on one thought and clearing it of all others. You may focus on a sound, like "ooommm," or on your own breathing, counting, a mantra, or nothing at all. A common thread among the many meditation techniques is that the mind stops following every new thought that comes to the surface.

Its generally necessary to have at least five to 20 distraction-free minutes to spend, though meditation sessions can really be any length. Longer meditation sessions tend to bring greater benefits, but it is usually best to start slowly so you can maintain the practice long-term.

Many people find that if they try to meditate for too long each session or create a "perfect" practice it can become intimidating or daunting, and they find it more challenging to keep as a daily habit. It is far better to create the habit and work it into a more thorough version of that habit.

Its helpful to have silence and privacy, but more experienced meditators can practice meditation anywhere. Many practitioners of meditation attach a spiritual component to it, but it can also be a secular exercise. Really, there is no wrong way to meditate.

Throughout the day, when we experience stress, our bodies automatically react in ways that prepare us to fight or run. This is your body's stress response, otherwise known as your fight-or-flight response. In some cases of extreme danger, this physical response is helpful. However, a prolonged state of such agitation can cause physical damage to every part of the body.

Meditation affects the body in exactly the opposite ways that stress doesby triggering the body's relaxation response.

It restores the body to a calm state, helping the body repair itself and preventing new damage from the physical effects of stress. It can calm your mind and body by quieting the stress-induced thoughts that keep your body's stress response triggered. There is an element of more direct physical relaxation involved in meditation as well, obviously, so this double dose of relaxation can really be helpful for shrugging off stress.

A greater gain that meditation can bring is the long-term resilience that can come with regular practice. Research has shown that those who practice meditation regularly begin to experience changes in their response to stress that allow them to recover from stressful situations more easily and experience less stress from the challenges they face in their everyday lives. Some of this is thought to be the result of the increase in positive mood that can come from meditation; research shows that those who experience positive moods more often are more resilient toward stress.

Other research has found changes in the brains of regular meditation practitioners that are linked with a decreased reactivity toward stress.

The practice of learning to refocus your thoughts can also help you redirect yourself when you fall into negative thinking patterns, which in itself can help relieve stress. Meditation offers several solutions in one simple activity.

The benefits of meditation are great because, among other things, it can reverse your stress response, thereby shielding you from the effects of chronic stress.

When practicing meditation:

People who meditate regularly find it easier to give up life-damaging habits like smoking, drinking, and drugs. They also find it easier to stop rumination from ruining their day.

It helps many people connect to a place of inner strength. Numerous studies have found that, in diverse populations, meditation can minimize stress and build resilience. Meditation research is still relatively new, but promising.

Meditation is wonderful in that its free, always available, and amazingly effective in short-term stress reduction and long-term health. The benefits can be felt in just one session.

An experienced teacher can be helpful, but isn't absolutely necessary. You can learn many effective meditation techniques from a book or from the meditation resources right here on Verywell. Ultimately, if you can focus on your breath, on the present moment, or on any one thing for a while, you can now meditate.

It does often take some practice, however, and some people find it difficult to "get it" in the beginning. Meditation also requires a little patience and may be difficult for people with little free time (like some stay-at-home mothers who get very little privacy from small children). However, the time and effort it takes to learn and practice is well worth it in terms of the benefits it provides.

There are many forms of meditation that bring these fantastic benefits. Some may feel more comfortable for you to practice than others, so it's a great idea to try a sampling of them and repeat the techniques that seem to fit best for you. The most important thing to remember is to practice meditation for a few minutes per day and to try to sit for at least five minutes each session.

If you practice meditation while you are not in the midst of a stressful situation, you will find it easier to use it as a calming technique when you need it. Even if you plan to use it only as needed and not as a daily exercise, it is a good idea to practice meditation when you aren't feeling particularly stressed first, rather than trying it for the first time when you're feeling overwhelmedunless, of course, you can't find a time when you don't feel this way.

If you don't now where to start, you may simply focus on listening to your breathing for five minutes. To do this, relax your body, sit comfortably, and notice your breath. If you find yourself thinking of other things, simply redirect your attention back to your breath.

Another simple strategy is to count your breaths. When you inhale, count "one" in your head, and then count "two" as you exhale. Keep going as you breathe and start over at "one" if you notice you've become distracted by other thoughts. (Some people will find this easier to practice than the simple breathing meditation, and others will find it more challenging. Remember, your best meditation techniques are the ones that resonate with you.)

Here is a sampling of meditation techniques to try. May you find the relief you seek.

Original post:

Meditation for Mental Health - Verywell Mind

Career development By Ingenio on October 21, 2011 3:08 pm

High motivation is a key ingredient in a successful career. So how do we keep up our motivation? How do we avoid getting into a rut and staying there? What are some of the practical things we can and should do if were serious about success? Compiled by Helen Borne.

Personality traits

Dr. Giles Burch (AFBPsS MNZPsS MAPS) is a Sydneybased Registered Psychologist working as an organisational consultant, academic and clinician, specialising in personality/psychopathology performance/ productivity linkages in the workplace. A former staff member at The University of Auckland Business School, he continues to facilitate sessions on the Executive MBA on personal development.

There is little doubt that motivation plays a role in career success. Perhaps the starting point when considering what determines individual motivation is personality. Research has found that personality traits of extraversion and conscientiousness are associated with higher levels of motivation, while neuroticism is associated with lower motivation. If you are someone who is extraverted and conscientious you generally wont require much help with maintaining motivation; however, if you are someone of neurotic character, then this is more likely to be a challenge.

So how can motivation be enhanced? In the first instance, consider whether you are actually working in a context you enjoy, both in terms of what you are doing job or careerwise and also your working environment, for example, are you over-worked? and is the culture toxic? Perhaps you need to change it! However, if you are content in your work, but find it difficult to maintain motivation, what are the options?

Research highlights the effectiveness of goal-setting in motivating people, and is based on the rationale that it focuses a persons attention to identifying, working towards and achieving objectives. There are a number of goal-setting techniques, from the simple to-do list, through to thesetting of SMART (specific, measureable, attainable, relevant, timely) goals and the GROW (goal, reality, options, way forward) process. Another evidence-based technique is that of activity scheduling, which can be helpful if motivation is particularly low. This involves scheduling activities into the day that will provide a sense of pleasure and/ or achievement. The rationale behind this is that the less motivated one is, the less they engage in things which, in turn, feeds back into the low motivation, thereby creating a vicious cycle!

Finally, research reminds us of the importance of regular exercise, a healthy diet and sufficient rest in sustaining motivation and energy!

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Motivation - ingenio-magazine.com