Provided by CNBC Jack Washington in his home near Dallas, Texas.

Watching extended family members and friends lose their homes during the Great Recession had a profound impact on Jack Washington. Though his own family made it through the financial crisis mostly unscathed, Washington began to realize from a young age how important it was to put money away and never owe anything to anyone.

So he started saving. His ultimate goal: Put away as much as he could, so his home couldn't be taken from him.

This savings mentality has manifested from the time Washington was in high school, when he began considering what he wanted for his future. The now-33-year-old received his bachelor's and master's degrees without taking on any student loan debt, thanks to a combination of scholarships and working as a residential advisor.

He pursued degrees in business and forged a career in human resources to ensure he would make good money right out of school, and have ample career opportunities.

In the first five years after he graduated, he saved over $300,000. His next step: buying a house. He closed on his 1,600-square-foot home in Richardson, Texas just outside of Dallas at the beginning of June 2019, and paid off the mortgage by the end of August.

For the human resources manager, owning a home outright was more important than any potential stock market gains his savings could have accrued. So important, in fact, that he paid off his $300,000 home in around three months, cashing out around $225,000 from a brokerage account rather than keeping the funds invested for retirement. He took the rest from more conservative investments, like CDs and liquid savings accounts.

Washington's decision to pay off his home decades early comes from a deeply-held conviction that it's better to be completely debt-free than owe money to anyone, regardless of if it's "good" debt or not.

His family and friends "loved the idea," he says. But the bank and his financial advisors were less than thrilled, warning that he'd potentially lose out on some serious stock market returns.

"I wanted financial stability and security. I wanted somewhere we could set down roots," Washington tells CNBC Make It. "I look at it as a utility, not an investment."

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With no mortgage payment, here's how his home costs break down each month:

Washington's salary is $120,000 per year, but he managed to save over $300,000 while earning between $85,000 at his first job out of business school and around $100,000. Though he lives with his wife, LaTaya, Washington paid off the full amount of the mortgage with his own investments and savings.

Washington was able to save so much by living a "generally frugal lifestyle" on an above-average salary: He's driven the same car since college, significantly scaled back his and LaTaya's wedding and cuts his own hair. Each year since he started working full time at 27, he's set "mini goals" for himself to slowly scale up his savings.

He acknowledges that not having student loans gave him a "leg up," though he intentionally went to schools that would give him scholarships and worked as a RA so that he wouldn't have to take any on (LaTaya graduated with around six figures in student loan debt, but has been aggressively paying it off with her own salary).

With his business degree, Washington knew he'd get ample job opportunities with higher-than-average salaries, and having a partner with a similar, though not identical, money mentality has made saving and working toward his financial goals easier.

It was this combination of strategies that worked for Washington. "That's my approach to building up wealth and money," he says. "It's not one big thing that helps you get to a good place, it's a million little things and the choices that you make every day that add up."

He credits his money mentality to his parents: His dad worked at a transit company in Chicago and his mom was a secretary. "They never made a ton of money, but they had good sense," he says. "They paid their home off in about 15 years. I make more now individually than they do collectively."

Peace of mind isn't the only benefit to paying off his mortgage so quickly. It also gives him the freedom to pursue a secondary long-term financial goal: Leaving the workplace at 40.

By having one less bill to worry about each month, Washington reasons, taking a break from the corporate world relatively early in life will be more manageable. He intends to work and his wife has no plans to leave her full-time job but just not continue the "grind." He's dreamed of that kind of independence since high school.

"I felt like my family and friends and older people that I knew were always talking about how hard they were working," he says. "They didn't have work life balance, and I knew that I did not want that to be me."

While he liquidated almost all of his savings to pay off his home, he's rebuilt it over the past year (not having a housing payment every month helps) and says he now has around $140,000 socked away in various accounts. That's his focus going forward.

Washington's goal is a different take on the financial independence movement, which typically evangelizes saving and investing as much money as possible in order to retire early.

Obviously, having a partner who will continue to work full-time makes taking a break from the workforce easier to manage; he will likely join her health insurance plan, and her salary will, hopefully, cover any surprise expenses that crop up. But Washington plans to save aggressively in the years to come to cover as many expenses as he can on his own. Not having a housing bill which is the typical American's top monthly cost gives him more freedom.

Despite the other goals Washington is now able to pursue without a mortgage payment, pulling his money out of the market was a big sacrifice. He acknowledges that most financial advisors would say he should have kept the $240,000 beyond the down payment invested in the stock market, but he's okay with what might not be considered the most prudent financial move. Paying off the balance gives him the stability he's craved, and, mentally, that is worth more than any potential investment gains.

"If you look at it from a purely financial point of view, okay, they might be able to convince me to keep it in the market," he says. "But peace of mind was the main motivation to pay the house off."

But is it advice others should take? There's no easy answer, Danielle Schultz, an Illinois-based certified financial planner, tells CNBC Make It. A major downside is that he has "completely lost the value of compound return," she says.

Traditionally, financial advisors say it does not make sense to pay off loans with interest rates lower than what you could earn in the market. That varies, of course, but a good rule of thumb is to focus on investing, rather than loan repayment, if your loan has an interest rate below 5%, says Schultz.

Another reason you're typically advised not to pay off your mortgage early: The mortgage interest deduction lets couples filing jointly deduct the interest paid on a mortgage up to $750,000, with some restrictions. Washington doesn't qualify for that tax break now.

Washington also had to pay capital gains tax on his withdrawal from the brokerage account. Had he taken the money from a retirement account, he also would have been hit with an early withdrawal penalty.

That said, there is a significant emotional benefit to having a house completely paid off, particularly for those nearing retirement, Schultz says. "If it makes you feel better, I say go for it, but only if the value of the house is no more than one-third of your total net worth," she says. "You need most of your investments to be generating income in retirement."

It's the emotional weight that Washington is happy to have lifted.

"I can't beat the feeling and security of not owing anyone anything, regardless of market performance," he says. "I always wanted to have that stability ... As long as we can scrape up $6,000 per year for property taxes, we're fine."

It makes sense for him. "It's mine," he says. "You can't take it away."

Don't miss: How a 25-year-old used $40,000 in down-payment assistance to buy her first house in Atlanta

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This 33-year-old paid off his $300000 house in 3 months here's why he didn't invest the money - msnNOW

Theresa Reno Weber and Sarah Davasher-Wisdom, Opinion contributors Published 4:30 p.m. ET Feb. 14, 2020 | Updated 5:53 p.m. ET Feb. 14, 2020

Policymakers in Frankfort have taken great strides to secure a better future for Kentucky by investing in our children. We have seen improvements to early learning opportunities, reforms to child welfare systems, and increased funding for K-12 education. Policies like these lead to stronger communities and a stronger Kentucky economy.

But we know that much more remains to be done.

Consider these statistics:

Nearly 50%of children in Kentucky enter kindergarten unprepared.

Half of all Kentucky families live in child care deserts areas either without child care providers or an insufficient number of child care slots.

Kentucky preschool enrollment of 3- and 4-year-olds fell from 24th nationally in 2008 to 41st in 2018.

In 2016, more than 30,000 Kentucky parents quit a job, did not take a jobor modified their job due to lack of access to child care a startling statistic given that Kentucky currently has 15,000 more open jobs than individuals seeking jobs.

We miss out on $939 million in economic activity from parents kept out of the workforce by child care costs.

The data shows that Kentucky families are not finding the support they need. The commonwealths economy is suffering as a result.

More: America's parents want paid family leave and affordable child care. Why can't they get it?

Kids from a Louisville preschool attended Children's Advocacy Day at the Capitol.(Photo: Deborah Yetter)

In 2020, Greater Louisville Inc. and Metro United Way are urging lawmakers to make Kentucky a leader in early childhood success and remove child care as a barrier to employment. Kentucky must strategically increase access to high-quality child care through a mixed-delivery model that relies on both public and private partners. This would ensure that more Kentucky children enter the K-12 system ready to excel, and more parents participate and advance in the workforce. Increased investment in early childhood would also have a strong economic return. Every $1 invested in early childhood will yield a $5 return to our economy.

Together, GLI and Metro United Way have outlined a series of shared legislative and budgetary priorities:

Increase Child Care Assistance Program (CCAP) reimbursement rates and incentives for serving infants, toddlersand young children in high-quality child care centers and family care settings.

Increase per-child funding for public preschool.

Increase eligibility for both the Child Care Assistance Program and public preschool to 200% of federal poverty level.

Pass House Concurrent Resolution 52, sponsored by Reps. Josie Raymond and Steve Sheldon, to establish a task force to study early care and education programs in Kentucky to improve access and quality for children and families.

Read this: Forest preschool? Outdoor learning trend makes its way to Louisville

Both of our organizations are confronted regularly with the reality that too many Kentucky children are not being given the opportunities they need to succeed and too many Kentucky parents are forced to choose between their careers and caring for their children. Proposals like the ones we are advocating for in 2020 can help address these issues, develop our workforce, and ensure a brighter future for the commonwealth. We encourage all members of the greater Louisville community to join us in advocating for increased investment in our children and in Kentuckys future.

Theresa Reno Weber is CEO and president of Metro United Way, and Sarah Davasher-Wisdom is CEO and president of GLI.

Read or Share this story: https://www.courier-journal.com/story/opinion/2020/02/14/investing-preschool-and-child-care-grow-kentuckys-economy/4754231002/

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Opinion: How investing in preschool and child care will grow Kentucky's economy - Courier Journal

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Getting a tax refund is like celebrating a delayed Christmas. But instead of spending money to be happy, you get money.

While there are plenty of ways you can spend your tax refund, there are also ways you can invest in yourself and your future. Here are a few ways to invest your tax refund.

If you've been struggling with old debt, such as credit cards, student loans or medical bills, now is the time to pay them off for good. If you're not sure which debt to pay off first, consider the one with the highest interest. High-interest debt, like credit cards, can compound through hefty interest charges, late fees and other penalties.

You could also use it to get current on late-but-not-yet-outstanding debt. For instance, catch up on your electricity bill or pay down the principal of your student loan. The sooner you pay it all off, the less burden you carry.

If you've been just scraping by with your regular paycheck, you may not have the extra cash for an emergency fund. Luckily, your extra cash can help. Use your tax refund to start an emergency fund. This can be a high-yield savings account you keep separate from your regular checking account. It's not an account that should be dipped into often -- unless there's an emergency -- but you should have easy access to it.

If you already have an emergency fund, this is a good time to give it a boost. An emergency fund should consist of three to six months' worth of expenses, which is different for everyone. If you don't think you'd survive financially if you missed a paycheck, put your tax refund towards your emergency fund.

Investing is different for everyone. It can be as small as microcontributions through an app such as Acorns, using a robo-advisor such as Betterment or managing your investments yourself through an online broker such as Robinhood.

Investing your tax refund is a great way to increase your return. While a high-yield savings account has APRs ranging upwards of 2%, the average stock market return is 10%. While you could stand to lose money in the stock market, you could expect serious gains as well.

Investing comes in many different forms. Before signing up with a company, determine if you're more of a hands-off investor (best for robo-advisors) or a hands-on investor (best for brokerages). Also consider your risk tolerance and when you plan to use your money. Stock market investing is best for long-term investment, or money that isn't touched for at least five years. So if you plan to use your investment money soon, you may want to consider other options, such as a savings account.

Preparing for your future after your career ends is one of the most important financial contributions you can make. If you have a work-sponsored 401(k) plan and don't max out your contributions, use your tax refund to do so. If you're older than 50, use the extra cash as a catch-up contribution.

You can also use it to start or fund your IRA. Whether you have a work-sponsored retirement plan or not, contributing to your IRA gives you an extra cushion in retirement. IRAs also have catch-up contributions, which is helpful if you're 50 years of age or older and don't feel confident you've saved enough for retirement.

A health savings account is a savings plan specifically designed for health-related costs. HSAs are a type of investment account, even though they're called "savings" plans. If you have a high-deductible health plan, you're eligible to open an HSA. HSAs are triple tax-free: Your contributions, earnings and withdrawals aren't taxed.

Whether you've put off going to college yourself or you want to get a head start on your child's education, use your tax refund to save for college. You have a few different options, like a high-yield savings account, an investment account or a 529 plan.

A 529 plan is specifically made for college savings. But it acts more like an investment account. Earnings grow tax-free and as long as you use the funds for education-related costs, you're not on the hook to pay taxes on your withdrawals.

While college is a great self-investment, there are other ways you can use your tax refund for a good cause. If college isn't on your radar, consider taking courses in a field or industry you're interested in. If you've been contemplating a career change, use your money to invest in that switch. If you need capital to start your own business, this could be your chance.

Also consider using it to give yourself a much-needed break. Whether this is a vacation fund or simply money for a massage or spa day, your tax refund can help you recharge, reset and refocus. It's easy to veer into other materialistic things, like shopping for new clothes or shoes, but try to stay focused on what would improve your well-being in the long-term, not a quick fix.

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How to invest your tax refund - CNET

How much do you get for having your money in the bank?

Probably nothing, niets, niente, nada, nista, intet, nic, ei mitn, rien, nicht, nada

And you get nothing only if you are lucky.

I recently got a letter from my Dutch bank saying how it will start charging a negative 0.5% interest rate on certain amounts.

ABN AMRO - negative interest rate - Source: Reuters

In any case, 0, negative 0.5%, it doesn't look good! Let's look at other options for investing from Europe (DAX) (EUFN) (EZU) (EUFN) (IEUR).

Investing is pretty simple. Investing fundamentals are always the same and it doesn't really matter whether you are from Europe or not. The most important investing fundamentals are:

Let's apply these simple principles to the biggest investing issues and opportunities for Europeans.

1) What am I already invested in?

Let's reverse engineer investing from Europe and start from what you are already long, already invested in, if you are from Europe. To protect yourself from whatever might await Europe and the euro in the future, you might want to first diversify away from what you already have.

Pension funds

Most Europeans are legally obliged to put part of their salary into a pension fund. Unfortunately, pension funds invest like pension funds. They should offer a safe but small yield over time.

A look at the largest investments of my Dutch pension fund ABP shows that I am long government bonds, some real estate in the Netherlands, and the largest global corporations.

European Pension Fund Investments - Source: ABP

Thus, most pension funds hold a globally diversified portfolio and what we should expect from it is a small yield, hopefully above inflation and management costs if we are lucky. But something should come out of it at some point in time.

Your government - social security

Alongside your private pension fund, when you reach 60, 65 or even 67, if you are still alive, your government will probably give you a pension in the form of social security.

However, demographics are not looking good in Europe due to the aging population, government debts are piling and who knows how will Europe look like in 20, 30, 40 years.

Europe Government Debt Levels - Source: European Commission

While things go well and are stable, all is fine, but when things turn bad, reality might not meet your expectations. Greek pensioners have not been happy with what has been going on there over the past decade.

Greek pension cuts - Source: Greekreporter

We don't know what will be the paying capacity of individual European governments down the road, but that is something, alongside most pension funds already owning government bonds, we are all long.

Home - possibly???

Further, you might be one of those that own a home. Therefore, you might be long European real estate already.

European home ownership - Statista

But then again, your home isn't likely to produce cash flows, which is what you want to get from investing.

Euro - if you have some money to invest

And the last thing you are probably long, the euro, the currency, sitting on your bank account, earns no yield and is surely losing from 1% to 10% on inflation depending on what you are buying. If you are saving for retirement or a home, the inflation rate is much higher.

The above basket of European investments consisting of European bonds, stocks, government exposure, real estate and cash could be considered simply being long Europe with no diversification. If a government gets into trouble, bonds will follow and governments get into trouble when economies slow down, thus the stocks you own would fall too. And, if governments get into trouble, the euro would too be in trouble and your pension fund too, and even real estate might be hit.

We can say that we Europeans are pretty long Europe and every investment is highly correlated, not diversified at all.

So, where to invest and what to do? I'll tell you how am I diversified and hedged (protected from downside) as a European living in Europe and you'll see how that fits your requirements, risk appetite and financial goals.

The core of this article on how to invest from Europe will be diversification and inflation protection. Given the environment, we can't know what will work and because of the money printing going on, inflation is a certainty.

2) Stocks - or better to say businesses

When compared to what you get from your bank on your cash, investing in stocks that represent a part of a business seems a very smart thing to do. The Royal Dutch Shell (NYSE:RDS.A) (NYSE:RDS.B) stock gives you a high dividend yield, but it gives you also a risk, 100% related to oil.

Stocks are always very volatile because the majority of people see it as a gambling place and not as an investment place. However, if you look at it from an investing perspective, you can be very well rewarded over time.

My message is simple, have part of your portfolio in good businesses that will keep delivering over time. One example is the Visa (NYSE:V) stock that I recently did. I'll make an analysis about oil soon so please subscribe.

If you manage to not worry about stock prices, but focus on the businesses that you own and the yield those businesses produce over time, you'll do good and much better than by keeping your cash in a bond or on your bank account.

3) Real estate

An option is to invest in is real estate, another asset class that is still comparatively cheap. The naysayers will immediately say how real estate prices can drop and you can lose your money. My answer is that it is definitely a risk, but not a certainty like it is the case with your cash. Plus, as it was the cash with stocks and the businesses you invest, the question is whether you are investing in real estate like a speculation, expecting it to go up, or you are investing in it for the cash flow it will bring you.

Real estate yields in Europe are still much higher than what bonds offer and rents are usually adjusted up for inflation.

Europe real estate investing yields - Source: Global Property Guide

On top of the yield, given the ECB is printing money hand over fist and it is impossible for it to stop printing because the European economy, European governments and even the population is desperately in need of free money, it is likely that the money supply will continue to grow and that inflation will continue to be present within financial assets. So, owning real estate is also a form of inflationary protection.

ECB bond purchases - Source: ECB

The money the ECB produces through bond purchases and negative interest rates flows towards a higher yield - thus into real estate and financial instruments like stocks.

The result of the above is that home prices in the Netherlands have increased 35% in just four years while prices in Amsterdam surged much more as there is limited supply within the canals and high demand thanks to demographics and tourism.

Real Estate Prices Netherlands - Source: CBS

Perhaps there will be some temporary downturns, but given the "whatever it takes" monetary policy, it is more likely to see real estate prices double in the next 10 to 20 years than to see them fall. So, real estate is a way to protect your wealth and get a yield.

I made a rational mistake of selling my real estate in the Netherlands in 2019, but that was mostly for personal reasons as we took the equity out to buy something new as we moved out of the Netherlands. More about that in my real estate video. We still have the cash, but it will hopefully be deployed during this year.

Just a warning here, investing in real estate has its risks and you really need to do it properly. If you do it properly, you treat it as an investment and you don't speculate. Thus, you focus on the yield from the property and you are happy with it, over the long-term, you'll probably do very well. Also, keep in mind the three core rules when it comes to investing in real estate: location, location and location. Add demographics, supply and demand analysis, tourism, students etc. and you'll get the picture of where to and where not to invest.

And, real estate investing has another little perk.

4) Mortgages or loans (for whom do you think those low interest rates are?)

Central banks are forced to keep interest rates extremely low because governments and corporations are extremely indebted, especially in old fashioned industries or countries where they try to do whatever to keep up with growth stocks or emerging markets.

My brother is looking to buy his first home in the Netherlands and the bank offers him an interest rate of 1.2% variable or a 1.47% fixed for 20 years. Those yields are insanely low where a fixed rate mortgage might give you another hedge against possible inflation given that your payments remain always fixed. If there is inflation of 5% to 10% in the future due to loose monetary policies, imagine how would you feel owning a 20-year fixed mortgage of 1.47%? (unfortunately, available only is some countries).

If you can borrow at 3% while the rental yield is 4% where the rental yield will only go up while your payment remains fixed forever, to me, that is a good risk versus reward investment opportunity.

Keep in mind there is always risk and you never know what can go wrong. The key to lower your personal financial and investment risk is to be diversified. Another way to diversify is to take a look at commodities.

5) Commodities

Commodities are resources where many are of limited supply while demand keeps on growing due to global economic growth. Global consumption of materials just hit 100 billion tonnes and there is not a sign that demand will stop growing in the future.

Global material consumption - Source: Guardian

Also, commodities should give you protection against inflation. Many immediately think of gold, an asset class with special characteristics but there are many other commodities you can invest in from copper, palladium, nickel to fertilizers or salt.

Whatever might be the commodity that best fits your portfolio, the key to understand is that commodities will always be volatile and therefore one has to have a clear strategy before exposing a portfolio to commodities.

If I take the example of gold, it has been extremely volatile over the past 10 years, going from below $1,000 per ounce, getting close to $2,000 in 2011, falling down to $1,000 and going up to above $1,500 now.

Gold price - Source: FRED

Perhaps the best strategy when it comes to commodities portfolio exposure is a constant balancing strategy. Let's say you put 10% of your portfolio in gold, for example, and when it becomes 12%, you sell 2%. In case it falls to 8% you bring it back up to 10%, etc. Given the volatility of the commodity, you'll constantly get a return from trading and give balance to your portfolio. In case gold is expensive while stocks are cheap, you might want to use the proceeds from one to add to the other.

In any case, it is likely that over the long term, a commodity will do better than cash by just preserving its value.

I personally don't have gold or other commodities, but I have businesses that produce them which is a way to combine being hedged with commodities and owning a business. Here is a discussion about investing in copper.

Investing from Europe - diversify and always mind the fundamentals

You cannot know what will happen, so you must always analyse the risk and reward of each of your actions. It is highly likely the euro will continue to lose its value due to political issues, constant money printing, the historical power of the dollar, the growth in other economies while Europe's demographics stagnate at best and most importantly negative interest rates and constant money printing.

We can only imagine how will European politicians and monetary policy makers react when the first real economic issues hit the global economy and push the European economy into a recession - I assume there is going to be a lot of money printing. The best way is to be prepared where if it happens you are ready, if it doesn't happen, you are still ok as you own good investments in the form of good real estate, good businesses and good commodities.

Now, don't diversify just to diversify and buy whatever in Emerging markets. Learn about your options and then invest in what you understand that is better compared to what you have now in Europe and in case Europe gets into a crisis, could be much better. Buying something, without a margin of safety or without good fundamentals just for the sake of diversification might be a costly thing to do. Remember, wherever you are, you have to apply common sense to investing.

For those that prefer watching, here is the video discussing the above.

For more insights into how to invest, how to take advantage of the situation and not be taken advantage of - please subscribe!

Disclosure: I/we have no positions in any stocks mentioned, and no plans to initiate any positions within the next 72 hours. I wrote this article myself, and it expresses my own opinions. I am not receiving compensation for it. I have no business relationship with any company whose stock is mentioned in this article.

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5 Ways How To Invest From Europe In 2020 And Protect Your Wealth - Seeking Alpha

To enjoy a comfortable future, investing is absolutely essential for most people.

Why invest? Investing can provide you with another source of income, help fund your retirement or even get you out of a financial jam in the future. Above all, investing helps you grow your wealth allowing your financial goals to be met and increasing your purchasing power over time.

Or maybe youve recently sold your home or come into some money, then its a wise decision to let that money work for you and grow over time.

You have many ways to invest from very safe choices such as CDs and money market accounts to medium-risk options such as corporate bonds, and even higher-risk picks such as growth stocks, S&P 500 index funds and REITs. Thats great news, because it means you can find investments that offer a variety of returns and fit your risk profile. It also means that you can combine investments to create a well-rounded and diverse that is, safer portfolio.

Click through the gallery above for strategies to consider when investing followed by the 15 best investments of 2020.

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The 15 best investments of 2020 Bankrate - msnNOW

Investors who owned stocks in the 2010s generally experienced some big gains. In fact, the SPDR S&P 500 (NYSE: SPY) total return for the decade was 250.5%. But theres no question some big-name stocks did much better than others along the way.

One of the market leaders of the past decade was chocolate giant Hershey Co (NYSE: HSY).

Hersheys financial performance and its stock gains throughout the 2010s were mostly consistent and steady. In fact, the biggest headline of the past 10 years for Hershey investors was a failed takeover attempt by Mondelez International Inc (NASDAQ: MDLZ) back in 2016.

In June 2016, Oreo and Cadbury parent company Mondelez made a $23 billion cash-and-stock offer for Hershey valued at $107 per share. However, the charitable trust set up by Hersheys founder more than 100 years ago to control the company and fund a school for underprivileged children rejected the buyout offer. The trust holds more than 80% of Hersheys voting stock. Reports later indicated Mondelez would be willing to pay as much as $115 per share for Hershey, but Hershey would not even enter negotiations for any bids under $125 per share.

Even with the trusts potential approval of a buyout deal, Hershey had a previous $12.5 billion buyout offer by Wm. Wrigley Jr. Co blocked by the Pennsylvania attorney generals office back in 2002 following local community protests.

Mondelez eventually abandoned its buyout bid in August 2016, sending Hershey shares tumbling 11.4%.

Hershey shares started the 2010s trading at around $36. The stock dipped as low as $35.83 in early 2010, its lowest point of the decade. From that point forward, Hershey shares marched steadily higher, reaching $50 by mid-2010 and $100 my late 2013. After more than three years of trading between around $85 and $110, Hershey broke out to new all-time highs in mid-2016 on the Mondelez buyout rumors. The stock climbed as high as $117.79 before dropping when the deal was abandoned.

Hershey finally broke out to new highs in early 2019 and made it as high as $162.20, its high water mark of the 2010s.

Though the stock has since pulled back below $160, Hershey investors did very well in the 2010s. In fact, $100 worth of Hershey stock in 2010 would be worth about $533 today, assuming reinvested dividends.

Looking ahead, analysts expect Hershey to struggle in 2020. The average price target among the 16 analysts covering the stock is $152, suggesting 3.7% downside from current levels.

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2020 Benzinga.com. Benzinga does not provide investment advice. All rights reserved.

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Here's How Much Investing $100 In Hershey Stock Back In 2010 Would Be Worth Today - Benzinga

It's Valentine's Day, and love is in the air. But so are big stock gains, with the benchmark S&P 500 and technology-heavy Nasdaq Composite hitting all-time record highs earlier this week.

A number of top money managers have said that you shouldn't fall in love with your investments, but that's a pretty hard suggestion to follow when there are so many great businesses you can own a piece of and call your very own for a long time. Below, you'll find seven stock market sweethearts that offer a combination of competitive advantages, superior branding, and long-term growth opportunities that'll have you swooning.

Image source: Getty Images.

Amazon (NASDAQ:AMZN) is pretty much at its all-time high -- and so what? Not only is Amazon responsible for close to 40% of the United States' e-commerce retail sales, according to eMarketer, but its cloud services business, Amazon Web Services (AWS), is growing at a significantly faster pace than its retail operations.

Why's this important? AWS generates substantially juicier margins than traditional retail sales, meaning that as AWS becomes a greater percentage of total sales for Amazon, the company's cash flow and profitability should soar.

According to Wall Street estimates, Amazon's cash flow per share is expected to nearly double between 2019 and 2022, placing the company at a significant discount to its average price-to-cash-flow ratio over the past five years. Assuming Amazon continues to dominate with its cloud offerings, considerable upside remains for its share price.

Image source: Getty Images.

Like Amazon, robotic-assisted surgical system developer Intuitive Surgical (NASDAQ:ISRG) is a company that just continues to grow stronger over time. Although Intuitive Surgical earns quite a bit of revenue from the sale of its pricey da Vinci surgical systems ($0.5 million to $2.5 million per machine), these systems are costly to build and therefore result in only modest margins.

Rather, this company generates the bulk of its profits from selling instruments with each procedure, as well as servicing its systems. As more da Vinci systems are installed, these higher-margin revenue streams become a larger percentage of total sales. Translation: Operating margins should increase over time.

What's more, Intuitive Surgical is just scraping the tip of the iceberg on soft-tissue surgeries with da Vinci. Aside from prime market share in gynecology and urology procedures, there's a long-term opportunity to grow its market share in colorectal, thoracic, and general soft-tissue surgeries. In short, this is a razor-and-blade business model with an extremely long growth runway.

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Cannabis hasn't exactly been a top-performing investment over the past 10-plus months, but that hasn't stopped marijuana real estate investment trust (REIT) Innovative Industrial Properties (NYSE:IIPR) from thriving. This REIT, which acquires medical marijuana growing and processing sites then leases them out for long periods of time, currently owns 49 properties in 15 states.

These assets have a weighted-average lease length of 15.6 years, with its $538 million in invested assets yielding an average of 13.2%. In other words, Innovative Industrial Properties should have a complete payback on its invested capital in just about 5.5 years.

Furthermore, the only high-yielding cannabis stock continues to benefit from vertically integrated multistate operators in the U.S. having limited access to financing. As long as cannabis banking reform is swept under the rug or kicked down the road on Capitol Hill, Innovative Industrial Properties' key advantage remains in place.

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While there's no denying that AT&T (NYSE:T) isn't the telecom growth giant it once was, there's also no overlooking its rock-solid business model or longer-term growth drivers. For instance, the rollout of 5G networks, while initially costly for the company, should lead to a steady wave of smartphone upgrades. Increased data usage is great for AT&T and its bread-and-butter wireless division, since data is where its juiciest margins lie.

Furthermore, AT&T is a content giant that should be able to utilize its purchase of Time Warner to its advantage. The addition of TNT, TBS, and CNN provides a lure to new consumers, especially streaming customers, while bolstering AT&T's ad-pricing power.

Sporting a 36-year streak of increasing its dividend, AT&T and its 5.4% yield are about as safe as it gets on the income front.

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It's pretty incredible how quickly Bank of America (NYSE:BAC) has transformed since the Great Recession. A number of settlements tied to the mortgage meltdown are now firmly in the rearview mirror, and BofA has done a bang-up job of reducing noninterest expenses to improve profitability. This has been accomplished by closing some of its physical branches and focusing on the next generation of consumers via digital banking and mobile apps.

Bank of America is also expected to benefit from the long-term normalization of interest rates. There's not a money-center bank that's more sensitive to interest rates than BofA. If interest rates wind up nearing their historic average, it should lead to billions in added net interest income for Bank of America. Following a $37 billion capital-return plan, announced in June 2019, BofA's capital returns could be robust if the fed funds rate finds its way back to 3%.

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Maybe it's apropos that a list of stock market sweethearts includes social-media giant Pinterest (NYSE:PINS), which is all about sharing your interests and things you like/love with the world. Last year, Pinterest saw its sales rise 51% to $1.14 billion, with global monthly active users (MAUs) rising 26% in the fourth quarter to 335 million from the year-ago quarter.

The Pinterest story is really all about international growth. In 2019, U.S. MAUs increased by only 8%, with the bulk of the gains coming from international markets, with MAUs up 35%. What's more, average revenue per user (ARPU) in foreign markets is really beginning to take off.

ARPU more than doubled on a full-year basis to $0.54 from $0.25. Pinterests' global ARPU level is still way behind rival Facebook, but it clearly demonstrates that advertisers are willing to pay up for eyeballs on Pinterest's platform, which, in turn, suggests that the company's ad-pricing power is improving.

With a turn to recurring profitability expected in 2020, Pinterest looks to be a solid candidate to "pin" to your portfolio.

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Historically, there's just never a bad time to buy into payment-processing giant Visa (NYSE:V). Visa is a dominant force in the U.S. that's responsible for more than half of the country's network purchase volume. It's also laying the groundwork to be a major payment-processing provider in markets well outside the United States. The 2016 purchase of Visa Europe significantly increased its global merchant network, and the company has the ability to continue growing its overseas market share as underbanked regions of the world, such as the Middle East and Africa, improve banking and credit access.

The beauty of Visa's operating model is that it's not a lender. Sure, this doesn't allow the company to double dip like some of its peers and earn interest while also lending money. However, it also protects Visa from credit delinquencies when U.S. or global economic growth contracts. This sole focus on being a payment facilitator and payment innovator is what allows Visa to charge higher.

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7 Stock Market Sweethearts You'll Want to Call Your Own - Motley Fool

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Much has been spoken of Henry Cavills punishing diet and exercise regimes, unsurprisingly for someone synonymous with Superman, with real-life comic-book good looks. Since taking on the role of genetically enhanced monster slayer Geralt of Rivia, The Witcher workout (involving daily fasting, cardio and weights session) has become a big search term, while his intense dehydration diet employed for shirtless scenes went viral. But behind the cape or leather armour donned for his characters, the British actor has some relatable rituals that non-superstars (or superheroes) can easily employ.

Cavill confirms there's a lot of gym work in his weekly schedule. When hes shooting a movie or series, to make sure that I can survive it, he trains twice a day.

Yes, its definitely for aesthetic reasons, he admits, but its also for the ability to actually manage an arduous shoot for seven to eight months or whatever it may be. Working 14-hour days does take its toll.

Regardless, his ethos is about trying to stay as healthy as possible. That means clean eating, too.

The most important thing for diet is knowledge and preparation, he tells us. And its very difficult for us as people who are busy running around doing our jobs to gain all that knowledge. His solution? If you can find a person or company who can do the knowledge part for you, so you know what your goals are, they can at least give you the information so you can do food prep, for example. This is is enormously helpful, Cavill says, allowing you to be in control of your nutrition.

I have found food prep to be a massive saving grace for me, time-wise and health-wise

I have found food prep to be a massive saving grace for me, time-wise and health-wise, because then I know what Im having and when. Therefore, he can eat as cleanly as possible when working, and then once a week Ill have a meal that I really want to have and thatll be off-diet.

Cavill will suffer for his art, but he knows its just that. On The Graham Norton Show he recently revealed how he would limit his water intake when filming for The Witcher. On the first day youll have a litre and a half, and the second day half a litre, and then the third day, no water, and youll shoot on the fourth [day], he explained.

Will this be a repeat performance? When it comes to shirtless stuff I would absolutely do it again, he says. But I do not recommend it: its not healthy. It doesnt feel good but it does look good! He tells us he only does the the light version of it, (apparently bodybuilders go hard). But for me, if it sells a character to an audience then yes absolutely Ill do it, but if its going to be a risk to my health, then no.

The actor knows that he has a professional trainer observing him, making sure that Im okay and that I have all the right things going into my system. For us mere mortals, its the opposite of what hed recommend.

Dehydration diets aside, Cavill is water obsessed. I was looking to start my own water [brand], he tells us, I was researching various springs around the UK; I wanted it to be environmentally responsible and ethical. He then met David and Bonita Spencer-Percival, founders of No1 Botanicals, who extract the compounds out of herbs and make pure botanical drinks with them.

Cavills now partnered with the couple, enabling him to drink a lot of the No1 Rosemary Water. It completely replaces my regular water intake, he reveals. I love the stuff. The only time I dont [drink it] is when Im in the gym because then I have electrolytes.

This completely replaces my regular water intake

To grasp the botanical science behind it, Cavill made a short documentary in Acciaroli, Italy, to see why the villagers are living long, happy, healthy lives. Indeed, they consume heaps of rosemary, but he assures us theres heavyweight science beneath the romantic concept.

Indeed, Cavill feels it himself. I realised quite quickly that my body was craving it. It really wanted it, and I started to feel better when I was drinking it. I noticed a massive difference when I was working on The Witcher - in prep when I had a window to do all my work for the day I was drinking this stuff and instantly felt sharper. The brain just started firing and it really, really helped.

The tangible health benefits of ancient herbal wisdom is becoming apparent to Cavill.

While he wasnt conscious to include herbs in his diet before, now that Im learning about super herbs, and they are important to include he feels. Especially if you want to live your life to the fullest; if you want to take full advantage of everything the body and mind is keyed to do. So, we can all play Superman?

Its as simple that, he adds. If you start putting this stuff in your body, it works better and more efficiently.

Does warm lemon water have any health benefits?

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The amount of carbohydrates available on campus has an effect on a students lifestyle and diet, according to students and exercise and sports science professor on campus. They said a balanced diet of refined and unrefined carbohydrates is important for a healthy lifestyle. In reality, they added anyone can eat whatever they want if they exercise accordingly.

Joel Reece is a BYUHawaii assistant professor in Exercise and Sports Science. Reece said he believes the presence of carbohydrates on campus is not great. He said, I think carbohydrates are a good thing for us. Often times, carbohydrates are looked at as being bad, but carbohydrates are the thing that provides energy for us.

Our body wants us to use carbohydrates as energy before any other macronutrients. Carbohydrates are one essential macronutrient that we can use for energy our body can use for energy I think maybe the misconception about carbohydrates is like a simple carbohydrate versus a complex carbohydrate or carbohydrates from whole grains versus refined.

Reece added, Maybe there are too many refined carbohydrates on campus.

Tale of two carbohydrates

The healthy balance between refined and simplified carbohydrates can affect a healthy diet, said Reece. According to medicalnewstoday.com, Unprocessed carbs contain fiber, vitamins, and minerals. However, processing them removes nutrients and results in refined carbs, which people sometimes refer to as empty carbs or empty calories.

Refined carbs provide very few vitamins and minerals. The body processes refined carbs quickly, so they do not provide lasting energy, and they can cause a persons blood sugar to spike.

According to Reece, refined carbohydrates, when eaten, could be either used as energy or later stored, but too much refined carbohydrates cannot be converted into energy and instead converts into fat stored in the body.

Although carbohydrates turn into sugar once consumed, sophomore Jeffery Tang, a biology major from California, said he doesnt think food plays a huge role in fat. He said people can eat whatever they want as long as they have the right amount of exercise. Tang said he was able to eat whatever he wanted due to balancing both calorie intake and exercise.

He shared from personal experience. I used to have to eat 8,000 calories a day to maintain my body weight. If I started not eating 8,000 calories then I would lose weight. Thats why with [the] right amount of exercise, you can eat any amount of food you want.

Brec Jorgenson, an undecided freshmen from Utah, said, I think that carbs are a good thing on campus. Carbs should be an important part of a students diet, but not overdone.

Jorgenson shared he thinks its not necessary to withdraw carbohydrates from a diet, but instead, its better to limit the amount of refined carbohydrates in a diet. The best thing to do is to balance both types of carbohydrates and exercise.

I believe that students put in enough time [studying and staying active] that carbs will help them keep going. I do believe that loading up on carbs and not adding exercise into someones weekly schedule will not be helpful in the long run.

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Joel Reece encourages students to know their eating habits and avoid excessive refined carbohydrates - Ke Alakai

Authors: Ksenia Power, M.S., Sara Kovacs, Ph.D., Lois Butcher-Poffley, Ph.D., Jingwei Wu, Ph.D., and David Sarwer, Ph.D.

Corresponding Author: Ksenia Power, PhD Candidate 1800 N. Broad Street, Pearson Hall, 242 Philadelphia PA, 19122 tug82764@temple.edu 267-766-8938

Ksenia Power is a Doctoral Candidate and an Instructor of Record in the Department of Kinesiology at Temple University, majoring in Psychology of Human Movement. She is also a Volunteer Assistant Womens Tennis Coach at Temple University.

ABSTRACT

Over the last three decades, a large body of research has examined the issue of eating disorders, both formal diagnoses and subclinical features, as well as compensatory behaviors in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletes. In general, this literature suggests that large numbers of student-athletes engage in disordered eating and compensatory behaviors; smaller percentages have symptoms that reach the threshold of formal diagnoses. Increased symptoms are associated with reduced athletic and academic performance, both of which may impact psychosocial functioning later in adulthood. Unfortunately, a number of methodological shortcomings across this body of research (e.g., studies with insufficient sample sizes, inappropriate comparison groups, and suboptimal or biased psychometric measures) limit the confidence that can be placed in these findings, underscoring the need for a new generation of studies. This paper provides an overview of this literature, focusing on issues of gender differences, sport type, and age. It also highlights the relationship between disordered eating and compulsive exercise, a compensatory behavior that is highly prevalent among collegiate athletes. The health and athletic performance consequences of eating disorders in conjunction with compulsive exercise are also discussed. In addition, a focus on more recently recognized eating disorders, such as binge eating disorder and the night eating syndrome is underscored. Future work in this area needs to include the most methodologically rigorous measures available in order to aid most appropriately coaches and athletic trainers in promptly identifying at-risk athletes and to inform future prevention and treatment efforts.

Key words: eating disorder, disordered eating, compulsive exercise

INTRODUCTION

Over the past decade, a number of studies have examined the symptoms of disordered eating among National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletes (9,12,13,24,30). Up to 84% of collegiate athletesreported engaging in maladaptive eating and weight control behaviors, such as binge eating, excessive exercise, strict dieting, fasting, self-induced vomiting, and the use of weight loss supplements (12,13,24). Subclinical symptoms or those that reach diagnostic criteria may contribute to poor physical and mental health, as well as suboptimal athletic and academic performance (29).

The substantial physical demands of being a student-athlete are believed to contribute to the development of eating pathology and compensatory behaviors (32). In season, student-athletes are restricted to 20 hours of weekly on-and-off the court/field physical workload, including the time spent in competition (1).However, the 20-hour rule if frequently violated, which results in excessive hours of physical activity and subsequent overtraining (39). For instance, Division I football, baseball, and basketball players reported the highest weekly in-season athletic commitments, averaging nearly 40 hours per week (39). In all other sports, the weekly times spent in training and competition averaged 32 hours (39). The combination of disordered eating and physical overtraining may further produce significant health impairments, such as low energy availability, muscle weakness, acquisition of overuse injuries, mineral bone deficiency, cardiac complications, impaired immune function, malnutrition, dehydration, fatigue, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis (5,15). Some of these conditions are sustained after the athlete has moved on from organized competition (29,44). Physical overtraining and inadequate nutrition can also negatively impact an athletes mood, contributing to poor academic and athletic performance (29,44,45).

Some collegiate athletes suffering from disordered eating are known to engage in compulsive exercise as a strategy to compensate for excessive caloric intake (33). Compulsive exercise, beyond sport-required training, places student-athletes at a high-risk for physical overtraining, overuse injuries, and subsequent diminished performance (12, 53). In addition, this compensatory behavior often occurs as a symptom of eating psychopathology (21, 33). Particularly worrisome is the finding that maladaptive eating with simultaneous engagement in compulsive exercise can often remain undetected in athletes and contribute to the progression of an eating disorder (36, 45). Like subclinical eating disorders, formal eating disorders can endure into adulthood and have a continued, negative impact on physical and psychosocial health (56). Unfortunately, most of these athletes experience eating disorder symptoms in isolation, as these behaviors often are missed by the coaching and athletic training staff (62,63). Thus, further studies are necessary for identifying eating disordered athletes (9,25,29).

Disordered Eating Symptoms and Eating Disorder Diagnoses

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-V) of the American Psychiatric Association (2013), eating disorders are characterized by severe alterations in an individuals eating habits that are linked to physiological changes.Individuals with eating disorders become pre-occupied with food, body weight, and physical appearance. Common eating disorders that occur in collegiate athletes are Anorexia Nervosa (AN) and Bulimia Nervosa (BN) (4,10,12, 24, 42). For instance, in a mixed-sport sample of Division I collegiate athletes, 5.1% of all women scored in the clinical range for either Anorexia Nervosa or Bulimia Nervosa (49). Similar rates of clinical eating disorders were reported in a sample of 414 NCAA Division I athletes (6.3%), with Bulimia Nervosa being the most frequent one (4).

According to the American Psychiatric Association (2013), Anorexia Nervosa (AN)is characterized by persistent restriction of caloric intake, resulting in significantly low body weight (below the minimal norm considering an individuals age, height, weight, and developmental trajectory). It also manifests through an intense fear of gaining weight and severe disturbances in ones perceptions of his or her own body weight and shape (i.e., refusal to recognize the seriousness of ones low body weight). Bulimia Nervosa (BN) is characterized by the following symptoms: (a) recurrent episodes of binge eating; (b) recurrent engagement in detrimental compensatory behaviors in order to prevent weight gain; (c) the binge eating and compensatory behaviors must occur at least once a week for three consecutive months; and (d) an individuals body and shape become vital parts in his or her self-evaluation (3). Binge Eating Disorder (BED)includes the following symptoms: (a) recurrent engagement in episodes of binge eating; (b) occurrence of binge eating episodes, on average, at least once a week for three consecutive months; (c) manifestation of distress related to binge eating; and (d) disassociation with the recurrent use of compensatory behaviors as in Bulimia Nervosa or Anorexia Nervosa (3). Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder (OSFED) can be applied to cases, when a person engages in eating behaviors that cause clinically significant distress or impaired functioning, but does not meet full criteria for an eating disorder (3). Lastly, Night Eating Syndrome is characterized by recurring episodes of eating after awakening from sleep or by immoderate food consumption following the evening meal (3).

The Prevalence of Eating Disorders in Athletes

Although disordered eating and exercise behaviors have been highlighted as significant issues among collegiate athletes, the percentage of athletes who meet full diagnostic criteria for clinical or subclinical eating disorders vary greatly, from 1.1% to 49.2% across studies (4,10,12,24,30,42). For instance, Greenleaf et al. (2009) found that, in a group of female collegiate athletes, 2% met the criteria for an eating disorder diagnosis and another 25.5% exhibited subclinical symptoms of an eating disorder (e.g., binge eating, self-induced vomiting, and excessive dieting). Similarly, in Petrie et al.s (2008) study, 19.2% of collegiate athletes reported maladaptive eating behaviors. Sanford-Martens et al. (2005) detected slightly lower rates of subclinical eating problems (14.5%).

In Anderson and Petries (2012) study among female collegiate athletes, 26.8% of women reported disordered eating behaviors. Approximately 40% of the athletes engaged in at least two hours of daily physical activity, suggesting that many may be using this high level of activity as a compensatory strategy in response to binge eating. Up to 28% of athletes reported dieting or fasting at least two times over the past year (4). Kato and colleagues (2011) reported the highest rates of disordered eating in a sample of NCAA Division I and III athletes, ranging from 40.4% to 49.2%. In addition, 30.7% of all athletes reported body dissatisfaction, weight preoccupation, and bulimic tendencies. Wide-ranging rates of clinical and subclinical eating disorders in collegiate athletes call for additional research on eating disorders and associated symptoms, including compulsive exercise (9,29). Although previous studies provided useful prevalence data (4,12,24,30,42), new studies could potentially yield more accurate and consistent results of unhealthy eating and weight control behaviors in collegiate athletes.

Health Consequences of Eating Disorders

While each eating disorder has its distinct signs, symptoms, and health effects, the most frequent signs and symptoms of disordered eating and compensatory behaviors include: sudden weight loss, gain, or fluctuation; hypothermia (i.e., a dangerously low body temperature); and fatigue (29). Oral and dental problems caused by pathogenic weight control behaviors are dental erosion or caries, perimolysis (i.e., a dental condition linked to frequent regurgitation), and recurrent sore throats (64). Dermatological issues, such as hair loss, brittle nails, skin discoloration, and poor skin healing; also arise in individuals suffering from an eating disorder (54). Disordered eating behaviors also severely affect an individuals endocrine system by resulting in irregular menstrual cycles or a complete absence of menstruation (i.e., amenorrhea), which could potentially lead to infertility (55). Furthermore, prolonged misuse of laxatives, diuretics, enemas, and diet pills, as well as self-induced vomiting lead to various gastrointestinal problems, such as abdominal pain, early satiety and delayed gastric emptying, constipation, hematemesis (i.e., the vomiting of blood), and hemorrhoids (40). The resulting damages of disordered eating on the cardiorespiratory system include, but are not limited to, chest pains, hypotension (i.e., low blood pressure), arrhythmia (i.e., irregular heart beat), bradycardia (i.e., an extremely low heart rate), and shortness of breath (11).

Another consequence of maladaptive eating and compensatory behaviors is the Female Athlete Triad, which is characterized by energy deficiency, menstrual irregularities, and low bone mass that occur as a consequence of malnutrition and disordered eating (40). Low bone mineral density can result in injuries, stress fractures, and potential osteoporosis (55). This may be especially hazardous for competitive athletes who are generally at higher risks for overuse injuries due to their continuous engagement in high amounts of intense physical training (61). For instance, disordered eating, amenorrhea, and low bone mineral density were associated with musculoskeletal injuries in interscholastic female athletes (46). Finally, neuropsychiatric symptoms, including memory loss or lack of concentration, insomnia, increased anxiety, depression, seizures, obsessive-compulsive behavior, and suicidal ideation can be seen in persons with eating disorders (50). Up to a third of athletes at-risk for an eating disorder tend to engage in multiple pathogenic behaviors, as opposed to a single behavior such as restrictive eating (41).

Consequences of Eating Disorders on Athletic Performance

Disordered eating can have an effect on athletic performance (18). In aesthetic (e.g., gymnastics, swimming, diving), endurance (e.g., cross-country), and weight-classsports (e.g., wrestling, rowing), it is believed that leanness leads to enhanced performance (9). However, many athletes achieve low weight through disordered eating and compensatory behaviors, which can significantly decrease athletic performance (18,29). Specifically, long-term disordered eating impairs the main components of muscular fitness (i.e., aerobic fitness, musculoskeletal fitness, motor fitness, and flexibility), thus resulting in poor athletic performance (18). In addition, the health consequences of restricted caloric intake, such as loss of fat, lean body mass, electrolyte imbalances, and dehydration, can contribute to diminished performance (29). In a study among junior elite female swimmers, Van Heest and colleagues (2014) found that female athletes who restricted caloric intake and increased energy expenditure in training frequently suffered from ovarian suppression (i.e., lack of estrogen production). Female athletes who trained in the presence of low energy availability and ovarian suppression exhibited significant declines in their swim velocity (59).

A similar study of high school athletes found a negative relationship between disordered eating and athletic performance (56). Among a large sample of high school athletes, 35.4% were found to suffer from disordered eating, 18.8% reported menstrual irregularities, while 65.6% reported suffering a sports-related musculoskeletal injury during the ongoing season. Athletes exhibiting disordered eating behaviors were twice as likely to sustain a sports-related injury during a competitive season, as compared to the athletes reporting healthy eating behaviors. Moreover, the inability to train and compete due to an injury further results in decreased athlete performance upon the athletes return to play (56).

In addition to physical consequences on sport performance, disordered eating may contribute to other psychosocial issues (18). In particular, obsessive concern about weight and body image, as well as continuous eating restriction have been associated with mood disorders, which may impact athletic but also academic performance (27). Furthermore, overvaluation of shape, weight and eating control, anxiety, and depression that often coexist in athletes at-risk for an eating disorder, are capable of decreasing athletes motivation to train and compete. The resulting poor performance may further increase the pressure experienced by athletes to train more intensely and adhere to even more rigid dieting for weight loss (18). Disordered eating behaviors in competitive athletes may not only severely undermine an athletes health, but may also produce deterioration in sport performance (18).

Eating Disorders by Gender

A number of studies have found higher rates of maladaptive eating habits in female athletes compared to male athletes (9,10,24,31). For example, in a sample of 800 NCAA Division I student-athletes, 19% of women and 12% of men reported unhealthy eating habits (10). Krebs et al. (2019) also found a higher rate of eating disorders in collegiate female athletes than males. Specifically, three times as many female distance runners screened positively for an eating disorder as compared to male (46% and 14%, respectively). In another study, 26% of student-athletes scored in the clinical range for an eating disorder, with five times more females (84%) than males (16%) reporting disordered eating behaviors (37).

The main explanation for this tendency is that female athletes are more subjected to socio-cultural pressure to diet and be thin, while male athletes tend to be more concerned with physical fitness and masculinity (51). Thus, fewer male athletes contemplate dieting as compared to female athletes, which represents a risk factor for the development of eating disordered in females (51). Nevertheless, disordered eating has been significantly increasing among male athletes (22,12,42,52). For instance, certain male athletes, specifically wrestlers, rowers, and long-distance runners, are more likely to engage in pathogenic weight control behaviors than female athletes in general due to an increased focus on physical appearance and weight (22,26).

Hinton and colleagues (2004) examined dietary intake and eating behaviors in 345 NCAA Division I student-athletes. They found that more male athletes than female athletes exhibited having inadequate nutrient intake. Specifically, only 10% of male athletes, as compared to 19% of female athletes, consumed the recommended minimum of carbohydrates per each kilogram of their body weight, while 19% of males and 32% of females consumed the minimum recommended amount of protein. Moreover, male athletes were more likely to exceed the Dietary Guidelines for fat, saturated fat, sodium, and cholesterol intakes, as compared to female athletes (26).

In contrast to female athletes, who indicated restricting their nutrient intakes for weight gain prevention, male athletes reported using dietary supplements (other than vitamins) for weight reduction (26). Also, approximately 6% of male athletes indicated restricting their fluid intake. These findings can potentially be understood in the context of mens preoccupation with muscularity, resulting in a focus on diet, nutritional supplements, and excessive exercise (10). Hinton et al.s (2004) study findings suggest that male athletes, just as female athletes, undergo psychological problems of body dissatisfaction and low self-esteem, which leads to the onset of eating pathologies. In regards to sport-specific factors, male athletes are equally pressured to diet and exercise compulsively in order to maintain low body weight and produce successful athletic results (14).

In summary, a substantial body of literature shows that rates of eating disorders and disordered eating symptoms among collegiate athletes range widely, 0-19% in male athletes and 6-45% in female athletes (9,29,31,34). While the occurrence of clinical eating disorders is more prevalent in female athletes than male athletes, male athletes, in sports such as wrestling, rowing, and cross country, are at greater risk for pathological weight control behaviors (26,49,52). Such findings highlight inconsistencies in the eating disorder area and emphasize the need for additional research on the prevalence of eating disorders among both male and female athletes.

Eating Disorders by Sport

A number of studies have determined that the sport type in which an athlete participates can serve as a risk-factor for the development of disordered eating (4,22,48,52). In eating disorder research, sports have been categorized according to the level of pressure an athlete faces to maintain a low body weight for aesthetic reasons and/or performance enhancement (14). Across several studies (4,22,29,42),the following categories have been described: aesthetic or lean sports (e.g., gymnastics, figure skating, swimming, diving, track and field), endurance sports (e.g., cross country, cycling), technical sports (e.g., tennis, golf, baseball, softball), ball game sports (e.g., soccer, volleyball, basketball, football), weight-class sports (e.g., wrestling, rowing), and anti-gravitational sports (e.g., skiing, pole vault jumping).

Higher rates of eating disorders in aesthetic, endurance, and weight-class sports have been consistently reported (9,29,57). For example, Thiemann et al. (2015) found a greater frequency of maladaptive eating in aesthetic sports (17%) than in ball-game sports (3%). In Sundgot-Borgen and Torstveits (2004) study on elite athletes, 42% of women in aesthetic sports had subclinical and clinical eating disorders (e.g., gymnastics, figure skating, diving), 24% in endurance sports (e.g., long-distance running, cycling, swimming), 17% in technical sports (e.g., golf, tennis), and 16% in ball game sports (e.g., soccer, volleyball, basketball). Among male athletes, 9% of eating disorders were seen in men participating in endurance sports and 5% in ball-game sports (52). There are three possible explanations of higher rates of eating disorders in aesthetic, endurance, and weight-class sports. First, in endurance sports, such as cross-country, weight higher than an athletes optimum performance weight is linked to decreased performance (14). Second, in weight category sports, such as wrestling, athletes are pressured to meet a specific weight requirement just to qualify for a competition (9). Third, in aesthetic sports, such as gymnastics, athletes physical appearance is a part of an aesthetic evaluation, which pressures athletes to attain a certain body composition (14).

While the prevalence of disordered eating in sports that emphasize leanness is high, the reported rates of eating disorders vary by sport (48,53,57). For instance, in a sample of 414 NCAA Division I female athletes competing in gymnastics and swimming/diving, 108 (26%) scored in the subclinical range for an eating disorder (4). In addition, 26 athletes (6.1% of gymnasts and 6.7% of swimmers/divers) were classified as having an eating disorder. Out of 26 athletes in the eating disorder group, 20 athletes were identified as having subthreshold Bulimia Nervosa, 4 with Non-bingeing Bulimia, and 2 with Binge Eating Disorder (4).

In contrast to Anderson and Petries (2012) findings, Carter and Rudd (2005) detected lower rates of disordered eating considering the sport type. In a mixed-gender sample of 800 NCAA Division I athletes, Carter and Rudd (2005) found 9.2% of non-lean sport athletes and 17.5% of lean-sport athletes exhibiting subclinical features for an eating disorder. Additionally, 6.1% of athletes in lean sports suffered from chronic dieting, as compared to 2.5% of athletes in non-lean sports. Such high rates of disordered eating in gymnasts and swimmers/divers support the notion that athletes competing in lean and aesthetic sports are pressured to possess ideal body weight for reaching optimal performance. Thus, lean- and aesthetic-sport athletes are exposed to higher risks for developing an eating disorder than athletes competing in sports that do not overly emphasize body weight and physical appearance (4,10). Furthermore, Glazer (2008) found that athletes participating in lean sports averaged significantly higher on the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) and the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS), suggesting greater disordered eating and physique anxiety, as compared to athletes participating in non-physique-salient sports. Glazers (2008) findings support the notion of increased prevalence of eating disorders in sports that emphasize leanness (e.g., gymnastics, long distance running). Participation in non physique-salient sports (e.g., basketball, softball, soccer) may be a protective factor for the development of disordered eating (22).

Although some studies have linked the sport team classification to disordered eating levels (4,10,48), other studies found no support for this relationship (24,42,49). For example, despite the high frequency of pathogenic eating in a sample of collegiate athletes (19.2%), no association was found between sport team classification and eating disorder status in Petrie et al.s (2008) study. Similarly, Greenleaf et al. (2009) found no differences in the frequency of maladaptive eating behaviors across sport type. These results corroborated previous findings from Sanford-Martens and colleagues (2005) study, which also found no differences in eating disorder symptoms across sport types. These findings suggest that sport type may not be an influential factor in the development of maladaptive eating habits in competitive athletes (49).

To conclude, some studies suggested that lean-sport athletes (such as gymnasts, runners, swimmers, cyclists, and wrestlers) are more prone to developing an eating disorder than non-lean sport athletes, who do not overly emphasize body weight and physical appearance as part of their sport (4,10). However, other studies failed to establish the relationship between athletes sport classification and their propensity for unhealthy eating behaviors (24, 42). This observation calls for the need to broaden researchers perspectives on identification of at-risk athletes (9). Future studies may provide a clearer pattern between the sport type and disordered eating in collegiate athletes.

Eating Disorders and Age

While a great number of studies on the prevalence of eating disorders among athletes have reported their ages as a demographic variable (22,34,36,47,52), only a few studies assessed the direct link between disordered eating and college athletes age (23,24,42). For instance, in Petrie et al.s (2008) study, disordered eating group status (symptomatic vs. asymptomatic) was not related to age, indicating that symptomatic athletes may be found among all different ages (42). Similarly, Greenleaf et al. (2009) found no differences in athletes eating disorder status (i.e., symptomatic vs. eating disordered) based on their age. These findings suggest that the age variable may not be an influential factor on collegiate athletes disordered eating symptomology (24). Similarly, in a sample of 290 elite athletes between 14 and 30 years of age, Gomes et al. (2011) assessed the relationship between unhealthy eating behaviors and age. No association was found between athletes age and each subscale of the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q, 20). Thus, the findings indicate that athletes across different ages may be equally at-risk for developing maladaptive eating habits (23, 42).

Pettersen et al. (2016) further examined the prevalence of disordered eating in 225 Norwegian athletes in the age groups of 17, 18, and 19+ years old. In total, 18.7% of the athletes exhibited symptoms of disordered eating. Age was not a significant predictor of athletes maladaptive eating patterns. As Pettersen et al. (2016) explain, the peak risk for the development of an eating disorder occurs between childhood and early adolescence. However, the majority of the sample athletes were in their later adolescence and early adulthood, which may explain why age was unrelated to disordered eating symptoms. Specifically, adult athletes have acquired higher levels of confidence and self-esteem than athletes in their early adolescence, which could serve as a protective mechanism against the development of eating pathologies (43).

In summary, some studies suggest that the prevalence of maladaptive eating behaviors (e.g., fasting, self-induced vomiting, using laxatives and diuretics, binging followed by exercise, etc.) is higher in the college-aged athletes, as compared to competitive adolescent athletes (29, 30, 43). Nevertheless, a substantial body of literature indicates that competitive adolescent athletes experience severe eating disorder symptoms as do collegiate athletes (9, 29, 43). Additionally, the studies focusing specifically on the impact of age, failed to establish a significant association between age and athletes eating disorder status (24, 42 ,43). Thus, additional studies are necessary to establish a clearer association between athletes age and pathogenic eating.

CONCLUSIONS

Collegiate student-athletes represent a unique population of young adults who, because of the demands on their time associated with their sport, may be at particular risk for disordered eating and compulsive exercise (32). Specifically, many collegiate athletes appear to use excessive exercise as a compensatory behavior to control their body weight (4, 12, 36, 42, 48). Compulsive exercise, in combination with the sport-required training, place student-athletes at a high-risk for overuse injuries, and physical exhaustion, which can further impede athletic performance (12, 53). Therefore, there is a need to further examine disordered eating and compulsive exercise patterns among collegiate student-athletes in order to draw athletic staffs, coaches, and athletes attention to the deleterious health effects of these disordered behaviors.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

The roles of athletic trainers, administration, and coaches are paramount in recognizing detrimental eating and exercise patterns in athletes and providing them with the necessary professional assistance (14). First, expanding athletes knowledge about proper nutrition habits, maladaptive eating behaviors and their health consequences, and learning how to address the issue of disordered eating, are pivotal steps in primary prevention (40). There is a need to inform athletes that dietary restriction and purging behaviors for attainment of the desired body weight may lead to decreased athletic performance and adverse health consequences. Structured educational programs have shown to reduce the impact of risk factors of disordered eating (6, 17, 19). For instance, Becker et al. (2012) observed a significant reduction in bulimic symptoms just after 1 year following a peer-led educational intervention for athletes. In addition, the researchers found an increase in the number of athletes seeking medical assistance due to the concern that they may suffer from the Female Athlete Triad symptoms (6). Through educational programs, athletes, parents, and coaches can also learn that menstrual dysfunction occurs as a result of low energy availability due to deliberate dietary restriction, rather than a positive adaptation to high-intensity sport participation (17).

Changing perspectives on competitive sport participation for athletes and coaches could be another strategy for eating disorder prevention. Specifically, the way in which athletes evaluate their maladaptive eating and exercise habits can foster maintenance of an eating disorder (44,58). For instance, Thompson and Sherman (2010) found that athletes tend to underreport their eating disorder symptoms due to the misconception that dietary restriction and excessive exercise will result in enhanced sport performance. Athletes and coaches often reinforce maladaptive behaviors (i.e., dietary restriction, excessive exercise) because they believe that certain aspects of sport participation, such as mental toughness and continuous engagement in intense training, are pivotal in reaching optimal performance (44). As a result, athletes may perceive compulsive exercise as a demonstration of high commitment to their sport, rather than a symptom of an eating disorder (16,28). In addition, athletes and coaches falsely believe that weight loss achieved through food restriction and excessive exercise will imminently lead to increased performance (16). Thus, due to perfectionistic and result-oriented views of athletic participation, eating disorder symptoms are often overlooked and underreported (28). Consequently, an emphasis of educational programs should be placed on prompt recognition of maladaptive eating and exercise habits to prevent the development of a clinical eating disorder.

Furthermore, despite the availability of various eating disorder prevention strategies, Vaughan et al. (2004) found that only 1 in 4 (27%) of athletic trainers feel confident in identifying an athlete with an eating disorder. In addition, only 38% of athletic trainers feel confident in asking an athlete about disordered eating behavior (60). Although educational programs and counseling services have been created for collegiate student-athletes, proactive steps on behalf of the university athletic staff are necessary for early identification and prevention of eating disorders (8,35). Prompt detection of unhealthy eating behaviors through screening protocols has been associated with more effective treatment outcomes (8,57).

For instance, the Preparticipation Physical Examination (PPE) monograph, created by the American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (AMSSM) and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), can serve as an effective screening tool for identification of disordered eating behaviors in athletes (7). This instrument assesses whether athletes suffer from body weight pre-occupation, restrict their caloric intake, use nutritional supplements for weight loss, and undergo pressure to lose weight by outside sources (7). The Female Athlete Triad Coalition developed an 11-question screening tool that could be successfully employed as a part of the Pre-participation Physical Examination (17). This measure evaluates a female athletes pre-occupation with body weight, dietary restriction, menstrual dysfunction, bone injuries, and low bone mineral density. Consequently, simultaneous use of these screening tools could play a key role in identifying at-risk athletes and providing immediate treatment prior to competitive season. By utilizing screening protocols, coaches and athletic trainers can ensure that student-athletes have rewarding collegiate experiences. In addition, this method can protect athletes against the development of eating disorders that otherwise may endure into adulthood, impacting their physical and psychosocial health long-term (18,27).

Directions for Future Research

Further studies investigating the patterns of disordered eating in conjunction with compulsive exercise in collegiate athletes are necessary for several reasons. First, it is pivotal to provide athletes, coaches, athletic trainers, and athletic administrators with accurate information about the severity of maladaptive eating and exercise in collegiate athletes. Second, various socio-cultural and sport-specific pressures have been identified as potential risk factors for the onset of eating disorders in athletes, which allows researchers to examine the links between these risk factors and the development of disordered eating behaviors (14,18,51). While numerous studies have investigated these issues in great depth, wide gaps still exist in the literature due to inconsistent prevalence rates of eating disorders based on athletes gender, age, and sport type (9,29). In addition, certain studies yielded contradictory results and failed to establish the relationships among athletes sport classification, age, and their propensity for unhealthy eating behaviors (23,24,42).

To date, there is a scarcity of literature focusing on more recently recognized eating disorders, such as Binge Eating Disorder and the Night Eating Syndrome (4,12). Studies investigating the prevalence of clinical eating disorders in collegiate athletes reported rare instances of BED and the NES, ranging from 0 to 0.5% (4,10,12,24,42). The low rates of BEDs can be explained by the difficulty to disassociate the recurrent use of compensatory behaviors, which are distinct symptoms of AN and BN only (3). In the majority of clinical cases, athletes disordered eating occurs in conjunction with pathogenic weight control behaviors (12), which results in higher rates of AN and BN, and significantly lower rates of BED diagnoses.

In addition, a great number of studies in eating disorder research used the Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses (Q-EDD; 38) due to its high psychometric properties (4,10,12,24,42,49). Based on the DSM-IV (2) diagnostic criteria for eating disorders, the Q-EDD mainly assesses the symptoms of AN, BN, and BED, thus omitting questions related to the symptoms of the NES, an eating disorder that was later added the DSM-V (3). Consequently, questions exploring the NED symptoms, such as the frequency of recurring episodes of eating after awakening from sleep and the episodes of immoderate food consumption following the evening meal, should be added to the more recent eating disorder measures.

Considering limitations of the previously discussed studies of eating disorders in athletes, the following methodological recommendations could help future researchers to gain a better understanding of the nature and distribution of eating disorders. First, samples should include a large number of NCAA athletes to provide more reliable and valid results, and to ensure generalizability of the study findings. Second, athlete samples representative of each sport should be selected for accurate and valid comparisons by sport type. One way to achieve this goal is to categorize sports by their types (e.g., lean vs. non-lean, weight-class vs. non-weight-class) and recruit approximately an equal number of athletes for each sport category.

In regards to gender comparison, sufficient samples of both female and male athletes competing at the collegiate level need to be recruited to more accurately address the issue of gender differences in eating disorders. Although male athletes generally have a lower prevalence of eating disorders than female athletes, an increasingly large body of literature indicates that disordered eating among male athletes is on the rise (12,22,42,52). Moreover, male athletes in certain sports are more likely to engage in compensatory behaviors than female athletes (26). This conclusion could not be drawn if the study focused solely on one gender. Thus, excluding one gender from the investigation may result in biased reporting of the disordered eating problem and inaccurate conclusions about its prevalence rates across both genders.

Lastly, the conditions under which athletes report their eating behaviors must be assessed prior to data collection. Athletes tend to underreport their maladaptive eating and compulsive exercise habits due to the fear that their eating disorder may be discovered by their coaches and potentially affect their athletic careers (52). Consequently, athletes must be provided with confidentiality and a pressure-free environment in which they can answer instrument questions candidly. In addition, researchers need to choose appropriate measures that have been previously validated in athlete samples to successfully discriminate between eating disordered and healthy athletes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

None

REFERENCES

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Disordered Eating and Compulsive Exercise in Collegiate Athletes: Applications for Sport and Research - United States Sports Academy Sports Journal